قائمة المراجع الأجنبية
المقدمة
(1)
Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1978; reprint ed., New York: Vintage Books,
1979).
(2)
Edward W. Said, The Question of Palestine. (New York: Times
Books, 1979; reprint ed., New York: Vintage Books,
1980).
(3)
For a reference to this see Robert Graham, “The Middle East
Muddle,” New York Review of Books,
October 23, 1980, p. 26.
(4)
J. B. Kelly, Arabia, The Gulf,
and the West: A Critical View of the Arabs and Their Oil
Policy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980).
p. 504.
(5)
Thomas N. Franck and Edward Weisband, Word Politics: Verbal
Strategy Among the Superpowers (New York: Oxford University Press,
1971.
(6)
See Paul Marijnis, “De Dubbelrol van een Islam-Kennen,” NRC
Handelsblad, December 12, 1979. Marijnis’s article is a report of research
done on Snouck Hurgronje by Professor van Koningveld of the Theological
Faculty at the University of Leiden. I am grateful to Jonathan Beard for
bringing this item to my attention, and to Professor Jacob Smit for his help
in translating it.
(7)
For a very full account of the over-all context, see Noam
Chomsky and Edward S. Herman, The Washington Connection and Third World
Fascism and After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of
Imperial Ideology, vols. 1 and 2 of The Political Economy of Human Rights
(Boston: South End Press, 1979). For a valuable analysis of the
nincteenth-century picture see Ronald T. Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and
Culture in 19th Century America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1979).
(8)
For a well presented account of how giant corporations
intervene in the university, see David F. Noble and Nancy E. Pfund,
“Business Goes Back to College.” The Nation, September 20, 1980. pp.
246–52.
الفصل الأول: تصوير الإسلام في الأخبار
(1)
See Edward W. Said, Orientalism, pp.
49–73.
(2)
See Norman Daniel, The Arabs and Medieval Europe (London:
Longmans, Green & Co., 1975); also his earlier and very useful
Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Edinburgh: University Press,
1960). There is a first-rate survey of this matter, set in the political
context of the 1956 Suez War, by Erskine B. Childers in The Road to
Suez: A Study of Western Arab Relations (London: MacGibbon & Kee,
1962), pp. 25–61
(3)
I have discussed Naipaul in “Bitter Dispatches From the
Third World.” The Nation, May 3.
1980. pp. 522–25.
(4)
Maxime Rodinson, Marxism and The Modern World, trans.
Michael Palis (London: Zed Press, 1979). See also Thomas Hodgkin, “The
Revolutionary Tradition in Islam,” Race and Class 21, no. 3 (Winter
1980): 221–37.
(5)
There is an elegant account of this theme, done by a
contemporary Tunisian intellectual: see Hichem Djait, L’Europe et
l’Islam (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979). A brilliant
psychoanalytic/structuralist reading of one “Islamic” motif in European
literature—the seraglio— is to be found in Alain Grosrichard, Structure du
sérail: La Fiction du despotisme asiatique dans l’Occident classique
(Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979).
(6)
See Maxime Rodinson, La Fascination de l’Islam (Paris:
Maspéro, 1980).
(7)
Albert Hourani, “Islam and the Philosophers of History,” in
Europe and The Middle East (London: Macmillan Co., 1980). Pp.
19–73.
(8)
As an instance, see the penetrating study by Syed Hussein
Alatas, The Myth of the Lazy Native: A Study of the Image of the Malays,
Filipinos, and Javanese from the 16th to the 20th Century and in the
ideology of Colonial Capitalism (London: Frank Cass & Co.,
1977).
(9)
Not that this has always meant poor writin, and
scholarship: as an informative general account which answers principally
to political exigencies and not mainly to the need for new knowledge
about Islam, there is Martin Kramer, Political Islam (Washington, D.C.:
Sage Publications, 1980). This was written for the Center for Strategic
and International Studies, George town University, and therefore belongs
to the category of policy, not of “objective,” knowledge. Another
instance in the January 1980 (vol. 78, no. 453) special issue on “The
Middle East, 1980” of Current History.
(10)
Atlantic Community Quarterly 17, no. 3 (Fall 1979):
291–305, 377-78.
(11)
Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago
and London: University of Chicago Press, 1974). See the important review
of this by Albert Hourani, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37, no. 1
(January 1978): 53–62.
(12)
One index of this is the report “Middle Eastern and African
Studies: Developments and Needs” commissioned by the U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare in 1967, written by Professor Morroe Berger
of Princeton, also president of the Middle East Studies Association
(MESA). In this report Berger asserts that the Middle East “is not a
center of great cultural achievement … and therefore does not constitute
its own reward so far as modem culture is concerned … [It] has been
receding in immediate political importance to the U.S.” For a discussion
of this extraordinary document and the context that produced it, see
Said, Orientalium, Pp. 287–93.
(13)
Quoted in Michael A. Ledeen and William H. Lewis, “Carter
and the Fall of the Shah: The Inside Story.” Washington Quarterly 3, no. 2 (Spring 1980): 11-12.
Ledeen and Lewis are supplemented (and supported to a degree) by William
H. Sullivan, “Dateline Iran: The Road Not Taken.” Foreign Policy 40 (Fall 1980): 175–86;
Sullivan was United States ambassador to Iran before and during the
revolution. See also the six-part series by Scott Armstrong. “The Fall
of the Shah.” Washington Post,
October 25. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 1980.
(14)
Hamid Algar, “The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in
Twentieth Century Iran,” in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious
Institutions Since 1500 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and
London: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 231–55. See also
Ervand Abrahamian, “The Crowd in Iranian Politics, 1905–1953,”
Past and Present 41 (December
1968): 184–210; also his “Factionalism in Iran: Political Groups in the
14th Parliament (1944–46),” Middle Eastern
Studies 14, no. 1 (January 1978): 22–25; also “The Causes
of the Constitutional Revolution in Iran,” International Journal of
Middle East Studies 10, no. 3 (August 1979): 381–414; and “Structural
Causes of the Iranian Revolution,” MERIP
Reports no. 87 (May 1980), pp. 21–26. See also Richard W.
Cottam, Nationalism in Iran
(Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press,
1979).
(15)
This is especially true of Fred Halliday, Iran:
Dictatorship and Development (New York: Penguin Books, 1979), which is
nevertheless one of the two or three best studies of Iran done since
World War II. Maxime Rodinson, in Marxism and the Muslim World, has
nearly nothing to say about the Muslim religious opposition. Only Algar
(note 14 above) seems to have been right on this point—a remarkable
achievement.
(16)
This is the argument put forward in Edward Shils, “The
Prospect for Lebanese Civility,” in Leonard Binder, ed. Politics in
Lebanon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966). pp.
1–11.
(17)
Malcolm Kerr, “Political Decision Making in a Confessional
De. mocracy.” in Binder, ed., Politics in Lebanon, P.
209.
(18)
See the extraordinary rich material found in the Moshe
Sharett Personal Diary (Tel Aviv:
Ma’ariv, 1979); Livia Rokach, Israel’s Sacred
Terrorism: A Study Based on Moshe Sharett’s Personal Diary and Other
Documents, intro. by Noam Chomsky (Belmont, Mass.:
Association of Arab-American University Graduates [AAZG]. 1980). See
also the revelation about the CIA role in Lebanon by former CIA advisor
Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s
Failure in the Middle East (New York: W. W. Norton
& Co., 1980).
(19)
Elie Adib Salem, Modernization Without Revolution:
Lebanon’s Experience (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press,
1972), p. 144. Salem is also the author of “Form and Substance: A
Critical Examination of the Arabic Language,” Middle East Forum 33 (July
1958): 17–19. The title indicates the approach.
(20)
Clifford Geertz, “The Integrative Revolution: Primordial
Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States,” in The Interpretation
of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973). p.
296.
(21)
For an interesting description of “expert” illusions about
Lebanon on the eve of the civil war, see Paul and Susan Starr,
“Blindness in Lebanon,” Human Behavior 6 (January 1977):
56–61.
(22)
I have discussed this in The Question of Palestine, pp.
3–53 and passim.
(23)
For a brilliant account of this collective delusion see Ali
Jandaghi (pseud.), “The Present Situation in Iran,” Monthly Review,
November 1973. pp. 34–47. See also Stuart Schaar, “Orientalism at the
Service of Imperialism.” Race and Class 21, no. 1 (Summer 1979):
67–80.
(24)
James A. Bill, “Iran and the Crisis of ’78.” Foreign
Affairs 57, no. 2 (Winter 1978–79): 341.
(25)
William O. Beeman, “Devaluing Experts on Iran,” New York
Times, April 11, 1980: James A. Bill, “Iran Experts: Proven Right But Not
Consulted,” Christian Science Monitor, May 6,
1980.
(26)
As opposed to scholars during the Vietnam War who made a stronger case for themselves
as “scientists” willingly serving the
state: here it would be good to know why Vietnam specialists were
consulted (with no less disastrous results) and Iran experts not. See
Noam Chomsky. “Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship,” in American Power
and the New Mandarins: Historical and Political Essays (New York:
Pantheon Books, 1969). pp. 23–158.
(27)
See Said, Orientalism, pp. 123–66.
(28)
On the connection between scholarship and politics as it
has affected the colonial world, see Le Mal de voir: Ethnologie et
orientalisme: politique et pistemologie, critique et autocritique, Cahiers
Jussieu no. 2 (Paris: Collections 10/18, 1976). On the way in which
“fields” of study coincide with national interests see “Special
Supplement: Modum China Studies,” Bulletin of Concerned Asia Scholars 3,
nos. 3-4 (Summer-Fall, 1971): 91–168.
(29)
See Edmund Ghareeb, ed., Split Vision: Arab Portrayal in
the American Media (Washington, D.C.: Institute of Middle Easter and
North African Affairs, 1977). For the British counterpart see Sari
Nasir, The Arabs and the English (London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
1979), pp. 140–72.
(30)
James Peck, “Revolution Versus Modernization and Revisionism
A Two Front Struggle.” in Victor G. Nee and James Peck, eds., China’s Uninterrupted Revolution: From 1840 to the
Prenent (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975). p. 71. See also
Irene L. Gendzier, “Notes Toward a Reading of The
Pasing of Traditional Society,” Review of Middle East
Studies 3 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978). pp. 32–47.
(31)
An account of the Pahlevi regime’s “modernization” is to be
found in Robert Graham, Iran: The Illusion of Power (New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1979). See also Thierry-A. Brun, “The Failures of
Western-Style Development Add to the Regime’s Problems,” and Eric
Rouleau, “Oil Riches Underwrite Ominous Militarization in a Repressive
Society,” in Ali-Reza Nobari, ed., Iran Erupts (Stanford, Calif.:
Iran-America Documentation Group, 1978). Also Claire Brière and Pierre
Blanchet, Iran: La Révolution au nom de Dieu (Paris: Editions du Seuil,
1979); this book has an interview with Michel Foucault appended to
it.
(32)
There has been an extraordinary reluctance on the part of
the press to say anything about the explicitly religious formulation of
positions and policies inside Israel, especially when these are directed
at non-Jews. There would be interesting material found in the Gush
Emunim literature, or the pronouncements of the various rabbinic
authorities, and so on.
(33)
See Garry Wills, “The Greatest Story Ever Told,” subtitled
“Blissed out by the pope’s U.S. visit—“unique,” “historic,” “transcendent”—
the breathless press produced a loud of papal bull,” Columbia Journalism
Review 17, no. 5 (January–February 1980): 25–33.
(34)
See the excellent and exhaustive study by Marwan R. Buheiry.
U.S. Threats Against Arab Oil: 1973–1979, IPS Papers no. 4 (Beirut:
Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980).
(35)
This is a peculiarly American syndrome. In Europe, the
situation is considerably more fair, at least as far as journalism on
the whole is concerned.
(36)
Fritz Stern. “The End of the Postwar Era,” Commentary,
April 1974, pp. 27–35.
(37)
Daniel P. Moynihan, “The United States in Opposition,”
Commentary, March 1975, p.
44.
(38)
Robert W. Tucker, “Oil: The issue of American
Intervention,” Commentary, January 1975, pp.
21–31.
(39)
Tucker, “Further Reflections on Oil and Force,” Commentary.
January 1975, p. 55.
(40)
In Encounter, 54, no. 5 (May 1980):
20–27.
(41)
Gerard Chaliand, Revolution in the Third World: Myths and
Prospects (New York: Viking Press, 1977).
(42)
See Christopher T. Rand, “The Arabian Fantasy: A Dissenting
View of the Oil Crisis,” Harper’s
Magazine, January 1974, pp. 42–54. and his Making Democracy Safe for Oil: Oilmen and the Islamic
East (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1975). For
authoritative work on the true oil picture see John M. Blair, The Control of Oil (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1976), and Robert Engler, The Brotherhood
of Oil: Energy Policy and the Public Interest (Chicago
and London: University of Chicago Press, 1977).
(43)
Ayatollah Khomeini’s Mein
Kampf: Islamic Government by Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini (New York: Manor Books, 1979). p. 123.
For a careful, prorevolutionary critique of repression in
Khomeini’s Iran, see Fred Halliday. “The Revolution Turns to
Repression,” New Statesman,
August 24, 1979. pp. 260–64: also his comments in The Iranian, August 22, 1979. See
also Nikki R. Keddie, Iran, Religion,
Politics, and Society: Collected Essays (London:
Frank Cass & Co., 1980).
(44)
C. Wright Mills, “The Cultural Apparatus,” in
Power, Politics and People: The
Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills, ed. Irving
Louis Horowitz (London, Oxford, New York: Oxford University
Press, 1967). pp. 405-6.
(45)
See Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1973), pp. 24–27.
(46)
Herbert Gans. Deciding What’s News: A Study of “CBS Evening
News,” “NBC Nightly News,” “Newsweek,” and “Time” (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1979).
(47)
Gay Talese. The Kingdom and the
Power (New York: New American Library, 1969); Harrison
Salisbury, Without Fear or Favor: The New York
Times and Its Times (New York: Times Books, 1979); David
Halberstam, The Powers That Be (New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979); Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New
York: Free Press, 1978): Herbert I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1969), Communication and Cultural
Domination (White Plains, N.Y.: International Arts and
Sciences, 1976). The Mind Managers:
Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social
History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books,
1978); Armand Mattelart, Multinational
Corporations and the Control of Culture: The Ideological Apparatus
of Imperialism, trans. Michael Chanan (Brighton. Sussex:
Harvester Press, 1979).
(48)
Robert Darnton, “Writing News and Telling Stories.”
Daedalus 104, no. 2 (Spring 1975): 183, 188, 192.
(49)
This is convincingly demonstrated by Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making
and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and
London: University of California Press, 1980).
(50)
See in particular Sacvan Bercovitch, “The Rites of Assent:
Rhetoric, Ritual, and the Ideology of American Consensus,” in Sam
Girgus, ed., Myth, Popular Culture, and the American Ideology
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980). pp.
3–40.
(51)
This is well described by Raymond Williams, “Base and
Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory,” New Left Review 82
(November-December 1973): 3–16.
(52)
A series of recent studies dealing with American experiences
involving Indians, various foreign groaps, and “empty” territory make
this point tellingly: see Michael Paul Rogin, Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American
Indian (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975); Ronald T.
Takaki, Iron Cages, Richard Drinnon,
Facing West: The Metaphysics of
Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1980): Frederick Turner, Beyond
Geography: The Western Spirit Against the Wilderness (New York: Viking
Press, 1980).
(53)
See the recent account of this dissimulation by Chomsky and
Herman, After the Cataclysm.
(54)
In particular see the works by Herbert Schiller and Armand
Mattelart cited above, note 47.
(55)
For a description of the same verbal action-reaction
paradigm, see Franck and Wiesband, Word Politics.
(56)
On the role of Western-style elites in Muslim/Arab
societies, see John Waterbury and Ragaei El Mallakh, The Middle East in
the Coming Decade: From Wellhead to Well-Being? (New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1978).
(57)
Rodinson, “Islam and the Modern Economic Revolution,” in
his Marxism and the Muslim World, p. 151.
(58)
Ibid., pp.
154–55.
(59)
As a particularly noteworthy example see the recent work of
Mohammed Arkoun: Contribution à l’étude de
l’humanisme arabe au IVe/Xe siècle: Miskowyh, philosophe et
historien (Paris: J. Vrin, 1970); also Essais sur la pensèe islamique (Paris:
Maisonneuve & Larose, 1973); and “La pensèe” and “La vie,” in
Mohammed Arkoun and Louis Gardet. L’Islam: Hier. Demain (Paris:
Buchet/Chastel, 1978). pp. 120–247.
(60)
Albert Hourani, “History,” in Leonard Binder, ed.,
The Study of the Middle East:
Research and Scholarship in the Humanities and the Social
Sciences (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1976), p. 117.
(61)
See the very useful analysis of this subject as an aspect
of the State in dependent societies, by Eqbal Ahmad, “Post-Colonial
Systems of Power,” Arab Studies Quarterly 2, no. 4 (Fall 1980):
350–63.
(62)
A good sense of this activity is provided for Iran by
Michael M. G. Fischer, Iran: From Religious
Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1980). But see also Marshall Hodgson. The
Venture of Islam.
(63)
The key ideological document is Bernard Lewis, “The Return
of Islam,” Commentary, January 1976,
pp. 39–49; see my discussion of this in Orientalism, pp. 314–20. In comparison with Elie
Kedourie, however, Lewis is mild indeed: see kedourie’s extraordinary
attempt to show that Islamic resurgence is principally a variant of
“Marxism-Leninism” in his Islamic Revolution,
Salisbury Papers no. 6 (London: Salisbury Group,
1979).
(64)
W. Montgomery Watt, What Is
Islam? 2nd ed. (London and New York: Longmans, Green
& Co., 1979), pp. 9–21.
(65)
There is an especially cogent description of this in Albert
Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (1962; reprint
ed., London and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1970).
(66)
For a recent, albeit partisan, instance see Adonis (Ali
Ahmad Said). Al-Thabit wal
Mutahawwil, vol. 1, Al-Usul (Beirut: Dar al Awdah, 1974). See
also Tayyib Tizini, Min al-Turath ilal Thawra:
Howl Nathariya Muqtaraha fi Qadiyyat al-Turath al-’Arabi
(Beirut: Dar Ibu Khaldun, 1978). There is a good account of Tizzini’s
work by Saleh Omar, Arab Studies Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Summer 1980):
276-84. For a recent European view of the matter see Jacques Berque,
L’Islam au défi (Paris. Gallimard, 1980).
(67)
Hodgson, Venture of
Islam, 1: 56 ff.
(68)
Ali Shariati, “Anthropology: The Creation of Man and the
Contradiction of God and Iblis, or Spirit and Clay,” in On the Sociology of Islam: Lectures by Ali
Shari’ati, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan
Press, 1979), p. 93.
(69)
Shariati, “The Philosophy of History: Cain and Abel” in On
the Sociology of Islam, pp. 97–110.
(70)
See Thomas Hodgkin, “The Revolutionary Tradition in Islam,”
and Adonis, Al-Thabit wal Mutahawwil, on the conflict between official
cultures and countercultures.
(71)
Said, Orientalism, pp. 41 ff.
(72)
Until recently the situation was no different in the
representation of other “Oriental” groups: see Tom Engelhardt, “Ambush
at Kamikaze Pass,” Bulletin of concerned Asia Scholars 3, no. 1
(Winter-Spring 1971): 65–84.
(73)
Eric Hoffer, “Islam and Modernization: Muhammad, Messenger
of Plod.” American Spectator 13, no. 6
(June 1980): 11-12.
(74)
According to L. J. Davis, “Consorting with Arabs: The
Friends Oil Buya,” Harper’s Magazine,
July 1980, p. 40.
الفصل الثاني: قصة إيران
(1)
Salisbury, Without Fear or Favor, p. 158.
(2)
Ibid., p. 163.
(3)
Ibid., p.
311.
(4)
Ibid., pp.
560-61
(5)
Kedourie, Islamic
Revolution.
(6)
These articles are conveniently found in translation:
Rodinson, “Islam Resurgent?” Gazelle Review 6, ed. Roger Hardy (London:
Ithaca Press, 1979), pp. 1–17.
(7)
Quoted in Roy Parriz Mottahedeh, “Iran’s Foreign Devils,”
Foreign Policy 38 (Spring 1980):
28. See also Eqbal Ahmad, “A Century of Subjugation,” Christianity and Crisis 40, no. 3 (March 3,
1980): 37–44.
(8)
See Robert Friedman, “The Gallegos Affair,” Media People,
March 1980, pp. 33-34.
(9)
William A. Dorman and Ehsan Omeed, “Reporting Iran the
Shah’s Way.” Columbia Journalism Review
17, no. 5 (January-February 1979):
31.
(10)
Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1979), p. 37.
(11)
Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The
Struggle for the Control of Iran (New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1979).
(12)
Hamid Algar, “The Oppositional Role of the ’Ulama in
Twentieth-Century Iran,” in Keddie, Scholars,
Saints, and Sufis, pp. 231–55.
(13)
See Richard Deacon, The Israeli
Secret Service (New York: Taplinger Publishing Co.,
1978). pp. 176-77.
(14)
For alternative views of Le
Monde, see Aimé Guedi and Jacques Girault, “Le Monde”. Humanisme, objectivité et
politique (Paris: Editions Sociales, 1970), and Philippe
Simonnot, “Le Monde” et le pouvoir
(Paris: Les Presses d’aujourd’hui, 1977).
(15)
See Clark’s proposal for solving the Iran-American Crisis:
“The Iranin Solution.” The Nution,
June 21, 1980, pp. 737–40.
(16)
Almost alone, the Middle East Research and Information
Project (MERIP) has attempted to do this: see MERIP Raports, no. 88
(June 1980), “Iran’s Revolution: The First Year,” pp. 3–31, or the study
of Afghanistan in no. 89 (July-August 1980). pp.
3–26.
الفصل الثالث: المعرفة والسلطة
(1)
Giambattista Vico, The New
Science, trans. T. G. Bergin and Max Fisch (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1968).
p. 96.
(2)
Quoted in Raymond Schwab, Le Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950),
p. 327.
(3)
Ernest Renan, “Mahomet et les origines de l’islamisme,” in
Études d’histoire religieuse
(Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1880). p. 220.
(4)
Bernard Lewis, “The State of Middle East Studies,”
American Scholar 48, 3 (Summer
1979). 366-67. emphasis added. It is interesting to compare Lewis’s
disingenuous assertions with Bryan S. Turner, Marx and the End of Orientalism (London: George Allen
& Unwin, 1978).
(5)
See, for example, Donald F. Lach and Carol Flaumenhaft,
eds. Asia on the Eve of Europe’s
Expansion (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. 1965);
Donald F. Lach, Asia in the Making of
Europe, vol. 1, The Century of
Discovery (Chicago and London: University of Chicago
Press, 1965), and vol. 2. A Century of
Wonder (1977): J.H. Parry, Europe and a Wider World
(London: Hutchinson & Co., 1949), and The Age of Reconnaisance
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1963). Certainly one should also
consult K. M. Panikkan, Asia and Western Dominance (London: Ceorge
Allen & Unwin, 1959). For interesting accounts of Asians
“discovering” the West in modern times, see Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab
Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1963). and Masao Miyoshi, As We Saw Them:
The First Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860) (Berkeley, Los
Angeles, and London: University of California Press,
1979).
(6)
There are numerous examples of this, from the career of
William Jones, to the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, to a whole series
of nineteenth-century scholar-traveler-agent types: see Said,
Orientalism, passim. See also the revelations about Snouck Hurgronje,
note 6. Introduction.
(7)
See the penetrating review of the work by Bryan S. Turner,
MERIP Reports no. 68 (June 1978).
pp. 20–22. Following Turner’s review, in the same issue of MERIP Reports, James Paul estimates the
cost of the MESA volume at $85.50 per
page.
(8)
See Said, Orientaliem,
pp. 288–90.
(9)
Leonard Binder, “Area Studies: A Critical Assessment,” in
Binder, ed., Story of the Middle East, p. 1.
(10)
Ibid., p. 20.
(11)
Ibid., p. 21.
(12)
Proposal to the Ford Foundation for Two Seminar-Conferences,
Program in Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University (1974-75), pp.
15-16.
(13)
Ibid., p. 26.
(14)
L. Carl Brown and Norman Istkowitz, Paychological
Dimensions of Near Eastern Studies (Princeton, N.J.: Darwin Press,
1977).
(15)
Ali Banuazizi, “Iranian ‘National Character’: A Critique of
Some Western Perspectives,” in Brown and Istkowitz, eds., Psychological Dimensions of Near Eastern
Studies, pp. 210–39. For similar work on a directly
related subject, see the important articles by Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi,
“National Character and National Behavior in the Middle East: The Case
of the Arab Personality.” International Journal
of Group Tensions 2, no. 3 (1972): 19–28; and Fouad
Moghrabi, “The Arab Basic Personality,” Internationd Journal of Middle East Studies 9 (1978):
99–112; also Moghrabi’s “A Political Technology of the Soul,” Arab Studies Quarterly 3, no. 1 (Winter
1981)
(16)
See “Special Supplement: Modern China Studies,” Bulletin of
Concerned Asia Scholars 3. nos. 3-4 (Summer-Fall
1971).
(17)
Dwight Macdonald, “Howtoism,” in Against the American Grain (New York: Vintage Books,
1962), pp. 360–92.
(18)
Christopher Lasch, The New
Radicalism in America, 1889–1963: The Intellectual as Soeid Type (New
York: Vintage Books, 1965). p. 316.
(19)
For an instance of how ethnic origins are cited as
“credentials” by a typical Middle East studies expert, see J. C.
Hurewitz, “Another View on Iran and the Press,” Columbia Journalism Review 19, no. 1 (May-June 1980): 19–21.
For a response, see Edward W. Said, “Reply.” Columbia Journalism Review 19, no. 2 (July-August 1980):
68-69.
(20)
See my comments on recent books by Rodinson and Housrani in
Arab Studies Quarterly 2, no. 4 (Fall 1980):
386–93.
(21)
Irene Ferrera-Hoechstetter, “Les Etudes sur le moyen-orient
aux Etats-Unis.” Maghreb-Mashrek 82 (October-November 1978):
34.
(22)
Richard H. Nolte, Middle East Centers at U.S. Universities,
June 1979, p. 2 (courtesy of Mr. Don Snook of Esso Middle East, who very
kindly sent me a copy of Nolte’s report).
(23)
Ibid., pp. 40, 46, 20.
(24)
Ibid., pp. 43,
24.
(25)
Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality. Volume One: An
Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978). p. 34.
(26)
The phrase is partly Harold Bloom’s, although of course he
uses it in a very different context and calls it “antithetical
criticism”: see his book The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp.
93–96.
(27)
The work of Peter Gran, Judith Tucker, Basem Musallem, Eric
Davis, and Stuart Schaar, among others, is representative of this
group.
(28)
See notes 14, 15, and 62, Chapter
One.
(29)
I have discussed the nōnon of affiliation in “Reflections
on Recent American ‘Left’ Literary Criticism,” Boundary 2 8, no. 1 (Fall
1979): 26–29.
(30)
Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth
and Method (New York: Seabury Press, 1975), p.
238.
(31)
See Ali Jandaghi’s comments on Marvin Zonis’s study of the
Iranian elite, in “The Present Situation in Iran,” Monthly Review,
November 1973. pp. 34–47.
(32)
As instances, there is J. B. Kelly. Arabia, the Gulf and
the West, who bewails the departure of the British east of Suez;
there is Élie Kedourie, who attacks de Gaulle for having “given up” Algeria—see
his review of Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria,
1954–1962 in the Times Literary Supplement, April 21, 1978, pp. 447–50;
and there is Robert W. Tucker and a whole string of followers who have
been advocating an American invasion of the Gulf for at least five years
(see notes 34 and 38, Chapter One). Behind much of this is the work of
Edward N. Luttwak: see the model presented in his book The Grand
Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third
(Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1976).