قائمة المراجع الأجنبية

المقدمة

(1)

Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978; reprint ed., New York: Vintage Books, 1979).

(2)

Edward W. Said, The Question of Palestine. (New York: Times Books, 1979; reprint ed., New York: Vintage Books, 1980).

(3)

For a reference to this see Robert Graham, “The Middle East Muddle,” New York Review of Books, October 23, 1980, p. 26.

(4)

J. B. Kelly, Arabia, The Gulf, and the West: A Critical View of the Arabs and Their Oil Policy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980). p. 504.

(5)

Thomas N. Franck and Edward Weisband, Word Politics: Verbal Strategy Among the Superpowers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

(6)

See Paul Marijnis, “De Dubbelrol van een Islam-Kennen,” NRC Handelsblad, December 12, 1979. Marijnis’s article is a report of research done on Snouck Hurgronje by Professor van Koningveld of the Theological Faculty at the University of Leiden. I am grateful to Jonathan Beard for bringing this item to my attention, and to Professor Jacob Smit for his help in translating it.

(7)

For a very full account of the over-all context, see Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman, The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism and After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology, vols. 1 and 2 of The Political Economy of Human Rights (Boston: South End Press, 1979). For a valuable analysis of the nincteenth-century picture see Ronald T. Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in 19th Century America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979).

(8)

For a well presented account of how giant corporations intervene in the university, see David F. Noble and Nancy E. Pfund, “Business Goes Back to College.” The Nation, September 20, 1980. pp. 246–52.

الفصل الأول: تصوير الإسلام في الأخبار

(1)

See Edward W. Said, Orientalism, pp. 49–73.

(2)

See Norman Daniel, The Arabs and Medieval Europe (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1975); also his earlier and very useful Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Edinburgh: University Press, 1960). There is a first-rate survey of this matter, set in the political context of the 1956 Suez War, by Erskine B. Childers in The Road to Suez: A Study of Western Arab Relations (London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1962), pp. 25–61

(3)

I have discussed Naipaul in “Bitter Dispatches From the Third World.” The Nation, May 3. 1980. pp. 522–25.

(4)

Maxime Rodinson, Marxism and The Modern World, trans. Michael Palis (London: Zed Press, 1979). See also Thomas Hodgkin, “The Revolutionary Tradition in Islam,” Race and Class 21, no. 3 (Winter 1980): 221–37.

(5)

There is an elegant account of this theme, done by a contemporary Tunisian intellectual: see Hichem Djait, L’Europe et l’Islam (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979). A brilliant psychoanalytic/structuralist reading of one “Islamic” motif in European literature—the seraglio— is to be found in Alain Grosrichard, Structure du sérail: La Fiction du despotisme asiatique dans l’Occident classique (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979).

(6)

See Maxime Rodinson, La Fascination de l’Islam (Paris: Maspéro, 1980).

(7)

Albert Hourani, “Islam and the Philosophers of History,” in Europe and The Middle East (London: Macmillan Co., 1980). Pp. 19–73.

(8)

As an instance, see the penetrating study by Syed Hussein Alatas, The Myth of the Lazy Native: A Study of the Image of the Malays, Filipinos, and Javanese from the 16th to the 20th Century and in the ideology of Colonial Capitalism (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1977).

(9)

Not that this has always meant poor writin, and scholarship: as an informative general account which answers principally to political exigencies and not mainly to the need for new knowledge about Islam, there is Martin Kramer, Political Islam (Washington, D.C.: Sage Publications, 1980). This was written for the Center for Strategic and International Studies, George town University, and therefore belongs to the category of policy, not of “objective,” knowledge. Another instance in the January 1980 (vol. 78, no. 453) special issue on “The Middle East, 1980” of Current History.

(10)

Atlantic Community Quarterly 17, no. 3 (Fall 1979): 291–305, 377-78.

(11)

Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1974). See the important review of this by Albert Hourani, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37, no. 1 (January 1978): 53–62.

(12)

One index of this is the report “Middle Eastern and African Studies: Developments and Needs” commissioned by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare in 1967, written by Professor Morroe Berger of Princeton, also president of the Middle East Studies Association (MESA). In this report Berger asserts that the Middle East “is not a center of great cultural achievement … and therefore does not constitute its own reward so far as modem culture is concerned … [It] has been receding in immediate political importance to the U.S.” For a discussion of this extraordinary document and the context that produced it, see Said, Orientalium, Pp. 287–93.

(13)

Quoted in Michael A. Ledeen and William H. Lewis, “Carter and the Fall of the Shah: The Inside Story.” Washington Quarterly 3, no. 2 (Spring 1980): 11-12. Ledeen and Lewis are supplemented (and supported to a degree) by William H. Sullivan, “Dateline Iran: The Road Not Taken.” Foreign Policy 40 (Fall 1980): 175–86; Sullivan was United States ambassador to Iran before and during the revolution. See also the six-part series by Scott Armstrong. “The Fall of the Shah.” Washington Post, October 25. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 1980.

(14)

Hamid Algar, “The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth Century Iran,” in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions Since 1500 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 231–55. See also Ervand Abrahamian, “The Crowd in Iranian Politics, 1905–1953,” Past and Present 41 (December 1968): 184–210; also his “Factionalism in Iran: Political Groups in the 14th Parliament (1944–46),” Middle Eastern Studies 14, no. 1 (January 1978): 22–25; also “The Causes of the Constitutional Revolution in Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10, no. 3 (August 1979): 381–414; and “Structural Causes of the Iranian Revolution,” MERIP Reports no. 87 (May 1980), pp. 21–26. See also Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979).

(15)

This is especially true of Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (New York: Penguin Books, 1979), which is nevertheless one of the two or three best studies of Iran done since World War II. Maxime Rodinson, in Marxism and the Muslim World, has nearly nothing to say about the Muslim religious opposition. Only Algar (note 14 above) seems to have been right on this point—a remarkable achievement.

(16)

This is the argument put forward in Edward Shils, “The Prospect for Lebanese Civility,” in Leonard Binder, ed. Politics in Lebanon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966). pp. 1–11.

(17)

Malcolm Kerr, “Political Decision Making in a Confessional De. mocracy.” in Binder, ed., Politics in Lebanon, P. 209.

(18)

See the extraordinary rich material found in the Moshe Sharett Personal Diary (Tel Aviv: Ma’ariv, 1979); Livia Rokach, Israel’s Sacred Terrorism: A Study Based on Moshe Sharett’s Personal Diary and Other Documents, intro. by Noam Chomsky (Belmont, Mass.: Association of Arab-American University Graduates [AAZG]. 1980). See also the revelation about the CIA role in Lebanon by former CIA advisor Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s Failure in the Middle East (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1980).

(19)

Elie Adib Salem, Modernization Without Revolution: Lebanon’s Experience (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1972), p. 144. Salem is also the author of “Form and Substance: A Critical Examination of the Arabic Language,” Middle East Forum 33 (July 1958): 17–19. The title indicates the approach.

(20)

Clifford Geertz, “The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States,” in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973). p. 296.

(21)

For an interesting description of “expert” illusions about Lebanon on the eve of the civil war, see Paul and Susan Starr, “Blindness in Lebanon,” Human Behavior 6 (January 1977): 56–61.

(22)

I have discussed this in The Question of Palestine, pp. 3–53 and passim.

(23)

For a brilliant account of this collective delusion see Ali Jandaghi (pseud.), “The Present Situation in Iran,” Monthly Review, November 1973. pp. 34–47. See also Stuart Schaar, “Orientalism at the Service of Imperialism.” Race and Class 21, no. 1 (Summer 1979): 67–80.

(24)

James A. Bill, “Iran and the Crisis of ’78.” Foreign Affairs 57, no. 2 (Winter 1978–79): 341.

(25)

William O. Beeman, “Devaluing Experts on Iran,” New York Times, April 11, 1980: James A. Bill, “Iran Experts: Proven Right But Not Consulted,” Christian Science Monitor, May 6, 1980.

(26)

As opposed to scholars during the Vietnam War who made a stronger case for themselves as “scientists” willingly serving the state: here it would be good to know why Vietnam specialists were consulted (with no less disastrous results) and Iran experts not. See Noam Chomsky. “Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship,” in American Power and the New Mandarins: Historical and Political Essays (New York: Pantheon Books, 1969). pp. 23–158.

(27)

See Said, Orientalism, pp. 123–66.

(28)

On the connection between scholarship and politics as it has affected the colonial world, see Le Mal de voir: Ethnologie et orientalisme: politique et pistemologie, critique et autocritique, Cahiers Jussieu no. 2 (Paris: Collections 10/18, 1976). On the way in which “fields” of study coincide with national interests see “Special Supplement: Modum China Studies,” Bulletin of Concerned Asia Scholars 3, nos. 3-4 (Summer-Fall, 1971): 91–168.

(29)

See Edmund Ghareeb, ed., Split Vision: Arab Portrayal in the American Media (Washington, D.C.: Institute of Middle Easter and North African Affairs, 1977). For the British counterpart see Sari Nasir, The Arabs and the English (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1979), pp. 140–72.

(30)

James Peck, “Revolution Versus Modernization and Revisionism A Two Front Struggle.” in Victor G. Nee and James Peck, eds., China’s Uninterrupted Revolution: From 1840 to the Prenent (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975). p. 71. See also Irene L. Gendzier, “Notes Toward a Reading of The Pasing of Traditional Society,” Review of Middle East Studies 3 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978). pp. 32–47.

(31)

An account of the Pahlevi regime’s “modernization” is to be found in Robert Graham, Iran: The Illusion of Power (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979). See also Thierry-A. Brun, “The Failures of Western-Style Development Add to the Regime’s Problems,” and Eric Rouleau, “Oil Riches Underwrite Ominous Militarization in a Repressive Society,” in Ali-Reza Nobari, ed., Iran Erupts (Stanford, Calif.: Iran-America Documentation Group, 1978). Also Claire Brière and Pierre Blanchet, Iran: La Révolution au nom de Dieu (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979); this book has an interview with Michel Foucault appended to it.

(32)

There has been an extraordinary reluctance on the part of the press to say anything about the explicitly religious formulation of positions and policies inside Israel, especially when these are directed at non-Jews. There would be interesting material found in the Gush Emunim literature, or the pronouncements of the various rabbinic authorities, and so on.

(33)

See Garry Wills, “The Greatest Story Ever Told,” subtitled “Blissed out by the pope’s U.S. visit—“unique,” “historic,” “transcendent”— the breathless press produced a loud of papal bull,” Columbia Journalism Review 17, no. 5 (January–February 1980): 25–33.

(34)

See the excellent and exhaustive study by Marwan R. Buheiry. U.S. Threats Against Arab Oil: 1973–1979, IPS Papers no. 4 (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980).

(35)

This is a peculiarly American syndrome. In Europe, the situation is considerably more fair, at least as far as journalism on the whole is concerned.

(36)

Fritz Stern. “The End of the Postwar Era,” Commentary, April 1974, pp. 27–35.

(37)

Daniel P. Moynihan, “The United States in Opposition,” Commentary, March 1975, p. 44.

(38)

Robert W. Tucker, “Oil: The issue of American Intervention,” Commentary, January 1975, pp. 21–31.

(39)

Tucker, “Further Reflections on Oil and Force,” Commentary. January 1975, p. 55.

(40)

In Encounter, 54, no. 5 (May 1980): 20–27.

(41)

Gerard Chaliand, Revolution in the Third World: Myths and Prospects (New York: Viking Press, 1977).

(42)

See Christopher T. Rand, “The Arabian Fantasy: A Dissenting View of the Oil Crisis,” Harper’s Magazine, January 1974, pp. 42–54. and his Making Democracy Safe for Oil: Oilmen and the Islamic East (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1975). For authoritative work on the true oil picture see John M. Blair, The Control of Oil (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976), and Robert Engler, The Brotherhood of Oil: Energy Policy and the Public Interest (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1977).

(43)

Ayatollah Khomeini’s Mein Kampf: Islamic Government by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (New York: Manor Books, 1979). p. 123. For a careful, prorevolutionary critique of repression in Khomeini’s Iran, see Fred Halliday. “The Revolution Turns to Repression,” New Statesman, August 24, 1979. pp. 260–64: also his comments in The Iranian, August 22, 1979. See also Nikki R. Keddie, Iran, Religion, Politics, and Society: Collected Essays (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1980).

(44)

C. Wright Mills, “The Cultural Apparatus,” in Power, Politics and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills, ed. Irving Louis Horowitz (London, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1967). pp. 405-6.

(45)

See Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), pp. 24–27.

(46)

Herbert Gans. Deciding What’s News: A Study of “CBS Evening News,” “NBC Nightly News,” “Newsweek,” and “Time” (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979).

(47)

Gay Talese. The Kingdom and the Power (New York: New American Library, 1969); Harrison Salisbury, Without Fear or Favor: The New York Times and Its Times (New York: Times Books, 1979); David Halberstam, The Powers That Be (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979); Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978): Herbert I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), Communication and Cultural Domination (White Plains, N.Y.: International Arts and Sciences, 1976). The Mind Managers: Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978); Armand Mattelart, Multinational Corporations and the Control of Culture: The Ideological Apparatus of Imperialism, trans. Michael Chanan (Brighton. Sussex: Harvester Press, 1979).

(48)

Robert Darnton, “Writing News and Telling Stories.” Daedalus 104, no. 2 (Spring 1975): 183, 188, 192.

(49)

This is convincingly demonstrated by Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1980).

(50)

See in particular Sacvan Bercovitch, “The Rites of Assent: Rhetoric, Ritual, and the Ideology of American Consensus,” in Sam Girgus, ed., Myth, Popular Culture, and the American Ideology (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980). pp. 3–40.

(51)

This is well described by Raymond Williams, “Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory,” New Left Review 82 (November-December 1973): 3–16.

(52)

A series of recent studies dealing with American experiences involving Indians, various foreign groaps, and “empty” territory make this point tellingly: see Michael Paul Rogin, Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975); Ronald T. Takaki, Iron Cages, Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980): Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit Against the Wilderness (New York: Viking Press, 1980).

(53)

See the recent account of this dissimulation by Chomsky and Herman, After the Cataclysm.

(54)

In particular see the works by Herbert Schiller and Armand Mattelart cited above, note 47.

(55)

For a description of the same verbal action-reaction paradigm, see Franck and Wiesband, Word Politics.

(56)

On the role of Western-style elites in Muslim/Arab societies, see John Waterbury and Ragaei El Mallakh, The Middle East in the Coming Decade: From Wellhead to Well-Being? (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1978).

(57)

Rodinson, “Islam and the Modern Economic Revolution,” in his Marxism and the Muslim World, p. 151.

(58)

Ibid., pp. 154–55.

(59)

As a particularly noteworthy example see the recent work of Mohammed Arkoun: Contribution à l’étude de l’humanisme arabe au IV^e/X^e siècle: Miskowyh, philosophe et historien (Paris: J. Vrin, 1970); also Essais sur la pensèe islamique (Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose, 1973); and “La pensèe” and “La vie,” in Mohammed Arkoun and Louis Gardet. L’Islam: Hier. Demain (Paris: Buchet/Chastel, 1978). pp. 120–247.

(60)

Albert Hourani, “History,” in Leonard Binder, ed., The Study of the Middle East: Research and Scholarship in the Humanities and the Social Sciences (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976), p. 117.

(61)

See the very useful analysis of this subject as an aspect of the State in dependent societies, by Eqbal Ahmad, “Post-Colonial Systems of Power,” Arab Studies Quarterly 2, no. 4 (Fall 1980): 350–63.

(62)

A good sense of this activity is provided for Iran by Michael M. G. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980). But see also Marshall Hodgson. The Venture of Islam.

(63)

The key ideological document is Bernard Lewis, “The Return of Islam,” Commentary, January 1976, pp. 39–49; see my discussion of this in Orientalism, pp. 314–20. In comparison with Elie Kedourie, however, Lewis is mild indeed: see kedourie’s extraordinary attempt to show that Islamic resurgence is principally a variant of “Marxism-Leninism” in his Islamic Revolution, Salisbury Papers no. 6 (London: Salisbury Group, 1979).

(64)

W. Montgomery Watt, What Is Islam? 2nd ed. (London and New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1979), pp. 9–21.

(65)

There is an especially cogent description of this in Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (1962; reprint ed., London and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970).

(66)

For a recent, albeit partisan, instance see Adonis (Ali Ahmad Said). Al-Thabit wal Mutahawwil, vol. 1, Al-Usul (Beirut: Dar al Awdah, 1974). See also Tayyib Tizini, Min al-Turath ilal Thawra: Howl Nathariya Muqtaraha fi Qadiyyat al-Turath al-’Arabi (Beirut: Dar Ibu Khaldun, 1978). There is a good account of Tizzini’s work by Saleh Omar, Arab Studies Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Summer 1980): 276-84. For a recent European view of the matter see Jacques Berque, L’Islam au défi (Paris. Gallimard, 1980).

(67)

Hodgson, Venture of Islam, 1: 56 ff.

(68)

Ali Shariati, “Anthropology: The Creation of Man and the Contradiction of God and Iblis, or Spirit and Clay,” in On the Sociology of Islam: Lectures by Ali Shari’ati, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1979), p. 93.

(69)

Shariati, “The Philosophy of History: Cain and Abel” in On the Sociology of Islam, pp. 97–110.

(70)

See Thomas Hodgkin, “The Revolutionary Tradition in Islam,” and Adonis, Al-Thabit wal Mutahawwil, on the conflict between official cultures and countercultures.

(71)

Said, Orientalism, pp. 41 ff.

(72)

Until recently the situation was no different in the representation of other “Oriental” groups: see Tom Engelhardt, “Ambush at Kamikaze Pass,” Bulletin of concerned Asia Scholars 3, no. 1 (Winter-Spring 1971): 65–84.

(73)

Eric Hoffer, “Islam and Modernization: Muhammad, Messenger of Plod.” American Spectator 13, no. 6 (June 1980): 11-12.

(74)

According to L. J. Davis, “Consorting with Arabs: The Friends Oil Buya,” Harper’s Magazine, July 1980, p. 40.

الفصل الثاني: قصة إيران

(1)

Salisbury, Without Fear or Favor, p. 158.

(2)

Ibid., p. 163.

(3)

Ibid., p. 311.

(4)

Ibid., pp. 560-61

(5)

Kedourie, Islamic Revolution.

(6)

These articles are conveniently found in translation: Rodinson, “Islam Resurgent?” Gazelle Review 6, ed. Roger Hardy (London: Ithaca Press, 1979), pp. 1–17.

(7)

Quoted in Roy Parriz Mottahedeh, “Iran’s Foreign Devils,” Foreign Policy 38 (Spring 1980): 28. See also Eqbal Ahmad, “A Century of Subjugation,” Christianity and Crisis 40, no. 3 (March 3, 1980): 37–44.

(8)

See Robert Friedman, “The Gallegos Affair,” Media People, March 1980, pp. 33-34.

(9)

William A. Dorman and Ehsan Omeed, “Reporting Iran the Shah’s Way.” Columbia Journalism Review 17, no. 5 (January-February 1979): 31.

(10)

Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 37.

(11)

Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1979).

(12)

Hamid Algar, “The Oppositional Role of the ’Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran,” in Keddie, Scholars, Saints, and Sufis, pp. 231–55.

(13)

See Richard Deacon, The Israeli Secret Service (New York: Taplinger Publishing Co., 1978). pp. 176-77.

(14)

For alternative views of Le Monde, see Aimé Guedi and Jacques Girault, “Le Monde”. Humanisme, objectivité et politique (Paris: Editions Sociales, 1970), and Philippe Simonnot, “Le Monde” et le pouvoir (Paris: Les Presses d’aujourd’hui, 1977).

(15)

See Clark’s proposal for solving the Iran-American Crisis: “The Iranin Solution.” The Nution, June 21, 1980, pp. 737–40.

(16)

Almost alone, the Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) has attempted to do this: see MERIP Raports, no. 88 (June 1980), “Iran’s Revolution: The First Year,” pp. 3–31, or the study of Afghanistan in no. 89 (July-August 1980). pp. 3–26.

الفصل الثالث: المعرفة والسلطة

(1)

Giambattista Vico, The New Science, trans. T. G. Bergin and Max Fisch (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1968). p. 96.

(2)

Quoted in Raymond Schwab, Le Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950), p. 327.

(3)

Ernest Renan, “Mahomet et les origines de l’islamisme,” in Études d’histoire religieuse (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1880). p. 220.

(4)

Bernard Lewis, “The State of Middle East Studies,” American Scholar 48, 3 (Summer 1979). 366-67. emphasis added. It is interesting to compare Lewis’s disingenuous assertions with Bryan S. Turner, Marx and the End of Orientalism (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978).

(5)

See, for example, Donald F. Lach and Carol Flaumenhaft, eds. Asia on the Eve of Europe’s Expansion (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. 1965); Donald F. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, vol. 1, The Century of Discovery (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1965), and vol. 2. A Century of Wonder (1977): J.H. Parry, Europe and a Wider World (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1949), and The Age of Reconnaisance (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1963). Certainly one should also consult K. M. Panikkan, Asia and Western Dominance (London: Ceorge Allen & Unwin, 1959). For interesting accounts of Asians “discovering” the West in modern times, see Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963). and Masao Miyoshi, As We Saw Them: The First Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860) (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1979).

(6)

There are numerous examples of this, from the career of William Jones, to the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, to a whole series of nineteenth-century scholar-traveler-agent types: see Said, Orientalism, passim. See also the revelations about Snouck Hurgronje, note 6. Introduction.

(7)

See the penetrating review of the work by Bryan S. Turner, MERIP Reports no. 68 (June 1978). pp. 20–22. Following Turner’s review, in the same issue of MERIP Reports, James Paul estimates the cost of the MESA volume at $85.50 per page.

(8)

See Said, Orientaliem, pp. 288–90.

(9)

Leonard Binder, “Area Studies: A Critical Assessment,” in Binder, ed., Story of the Middle East, p. 1.

(10)

Ibid., p. 20.

(11)

Ibid., p. 21.

(12)

Proposal to the Ford Foundation for Two Seminar-Conferences, Program in Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University (1974-75), pp. 15-16.

(13)

Ibid., p. 26.

(14)

L. Carl Brown and Norman Istkowitz, Paychological Dimensions of Near Eastern Studies (Princeton, N.J.: Darwin Press, 1977).

(15)

Ali Banuazizi, “Iranian ‘National Character’: A Critique of Some Western Perspectives,” in Brown and Istkowitz, eds., Psychological Dimensions of Near Eastern Studies, pp. 210–39. For similar work on a directly related subject, see the important articles by Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, “National Character and National Behavior in the Middle East: The Case of the Arab Personality.” International Journal of Group Tensions 2, no. 3 (1972): 19–28; and Fouad Moghrabi, “The Arab Basic Personality,” Internationd Journal of Middle East Studies 9 (1978): 99–112; also Moghrabi’s “A Political Technology of the Soul,” Arab Studies Quarterly 3, no. 1 (Winter 1981)

(16)

See “Special Supplement: Modern China Studies,” Bulletin of Concerned Asia Scholars 3. nos. 3-4 (Summer-Fall 1971).

(17)

Dwight Macdonald, “Howtoism,” in Against the American Grain (New York: Vintage Books, 1962), pp. 360–92.

(18)

Christopher Lasch, The New Radicalism in America, 1889–1963: The Intellectual as Soeid Type (New York: Vintage Books, 1965). p. 316.

(19)

For an instance of how ethnic origins are cited as “credentials” by a typical Middle East studies expert, see J. C. Hurewitz, “Another View on Iran and the Press,” Columbia Journalism Review 19, no. 1 (May-June 1980): 19–21. For a response, see Edward W. Said, “Reply.” Columbia Journalism Review 19, no. 2 (July-August 1980): 68-69.

(20)

See my comments on recent books by Rodinson and Housrani in Arab Studies Quarterly 2, no. 4 (Fall 1980): 386–93.

(21)

Irene Ferrera-Hoechstetter, “Les Etudes sur le moyen-orient aux Etats-Unis.” Maghreb-Mashrek 82 (October-November 1978): 34.

(22)

Richard H. Nolte, Middle East Centers at U.S. Universities, June 1979, p. 2 (courtesy of Mr. Don Snook of Esso Middle East, who very kindly sent me a copy of Nolte’s report).

(23)

Ibid., pp. 40, 46, 20.

(24)

Ibid., pp. 43, 24.

(25)

Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality. Volume One: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978). p. 34.

(26)

The phrase is partly Harold Bloom’s, although of course he uses it in a very different context and calls it “antithetical criticism”: see his book The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 93–96.

(27)

The work of Peter Gran, Judith Tucker, Basem Musallem, Eric Davis, and Stuart Schaar, among others, is representative of this group.

(28)

See notes 14, 15, and 62, Chapter One.

(29)

I have discussed the nōnon of affiliation in “Reflections on Recent American ‘Left’ Literary Criticism,” Boundary 2 8, no. 1 (Fall 1979): 26–29.

(30)

Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Seabury Press, 1975), p. 238.

(31)

See Ali Jandaghi’s comments on Marvin Zonis’s study of the Iranian elite, in “The Present Situation in Iran,” Monthly Review, November 1973. pp. 34–47.

(32)

As instances, there is J. B. Kelly. Arabia, the Gulf and the West, who bewails the departure of the British east of Suez; there is Élie Kedourie, who attacks de Gaulle for having “given up” Algeria—see his review of Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 in the Times Literary Supplement, April 21, 1978, pp. 447–50; and there is Robert W. Tucker and a whole string of followers who have been advocating an American invasion of the Gulf for at least five years (see notes 34 and 38, Chapter One). Behind much of this is the work of Edward N. Luttwak: see the model presented in his book The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976).