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قراءات إضافية

مشكلة التمييز

  • The account presented in this book draws from Michael D. Gordin, “Myth 26: That a Clear Line of Demarcation Has Separated Science from Pseudoscience,” in Newton’s Apple and Other Myths about Science, edited by Ronald L. Numbers and Kostas Kampourakis, 219–225 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).
  • Every introduction to the philosophy of science will include some discussion of the demarcation problem, including: Alan Chalmers, What Is This Thing Called Science?, 4th ed. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2013 [1976]); Naomi Oreskes, Why Trust Science? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019); and Samir Okasha, Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). Specialized philosophical accounts tend to be critical of Popper: Massimo Pigliucci, Nonsense on Stilts: How to Tell Science from Bunk (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); and Massimo Pigliucci and Maarten Boudry, eds., Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013). A sociological approach is provided in Thomas F. Gieryn, Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); and Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch, The Golem: What You Should Know about Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Material on individual movements and doctrines can be found in the following sections.
  • Langmuir’s “pathological science” speech is published as “Pathological Science,” transcribed and edited by Robert N. Hall, Physics Today 42, no. 10 (1989): 36–48.

علم التنجيم

  • The literature on the history of astrology is vast and generally highly specialized. For the history up to the Renaissance, good points of entry are Anthony Grafton, Cardano’s Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Darin Hayton, The Crown and the Cosmos: Astrology and the Politics of Maximilian I (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2015); and the many mentions throughout David C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A. D. 1450, 2d. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007). On astrology and weather prediction in the nineteenth century, see Katharine Anderson, Predicting the Weather: Victorians and the Science of Meteorology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).

علم الخيمياء

  • Scholarship on the history of alchemy has grown tremendously in recent decades. Good places to start are Lawrence M. Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); William R. Newman and Lawrence M. Principe, Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); and Bruce T. Moran, Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).

العلم والنازية

  • Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1977); Mark Walker, Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb (New York: Plenum Press, 1995); and Klaus Hentschel and Anne Hentschel, ed. and tr., Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1996).

الليسينكووية

  • Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997); David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970); Nils Roll-Hansen, The Lysenko Effect: The Politics of Science (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2005); and Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

علم تحسين النسل والعلم العنصري

  • Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985); Nathaniel Comfort, The Science of Human Perfection: How Genes Became the Heart of American Medicine (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012); and Philippa Levine, Eugenics: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).

علم الفراسة

  • Roger Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); and James Poskett, Materials of the Mind: Phrenology, Race, and the Global History of Science, 1815–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019).

نظرية الخلق

  • Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Robert T. Pennock and Michael Ruse, eds., But Is It Science?: The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2009); and Christopher P. Toumey, God’s Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994). On the Scopes trial, see Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate over Science and Religion (New York: Basic Books, 2006).

علم دراسة الحيوانات الخفية

  • The literature on cryptozoology is divided into case studies by creature. This chapter draws primarily from Joshua Blu Buhs, Bigfoot: The Life and Times of a Legend (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); and Henry H. Bauer, The Enigma of Loch Ness: Making Sense of a Mystery (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986). The latter is written by an engineer well versed in the literature of science studies who is also a believer in Nessie. Another useful history is Brian Regal and Frank J. Esposito, The Secret History of the Jersey Devil: How Quakers, Hucksters, and Benjamin Franklin Created a Monster (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018).

الكارثية الكونية والفضائيون القدامى

  • On Velikovsky: Michael D. Gordin, The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), which also contains references about Erich von Däniken.

علم الأجسام الطائرة المجهولة

  • Greg Eghigian, “Making UFOs Make Sense: Ufology, Science, and the History of Their Mutual Misunderstanding,” Public Understanding of Science 26 (2017): 612–626.

الأرض المسطحة

التنويم الإيحائي

  • Robert Damton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); Jessica Riskin, Science in an Age of Sensibility: The Sentimental Empiricists of the French Enlightenment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), chapter 6; and Alison Winter, Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

الروحانية

  • Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Richard Noakes, Physics and Psychics: The Occult and the Sciences in Modern Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

الإدراك الحسي الفائق وكشف الزيف

  • Seymour H. Mauskopf and Michael R. McVaugh, The Elusive Science: Origins of Experimental Psychical Research (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Ian Hacking, “Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design,” Isis 79, no. 3 (September 1988): 427–451; H. M. Collins and T. J. Pinch, Frames of Meaning: The Social Construction of Extraordinary Science (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982); and David Kaiser, How the Hippies Saved Physics: Science, Counterculture, and the Quantum Revival (New York: Norton, 2011).

الماء المبلمر وذاكرة الماء والاندماج النووي البارد

  • On polywater: Felix Franks, Polywater (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). Benveniste and cold fusion are both treated in chapter 8 of Melinda Baldwin, Making Nature: The History of a Scientific Journal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), and cold fusion is mentioned in many of the general accounts listed earlier for the demarcation problem. Detailed accounts include Bruce V. Lewinstein, “Cold Fusion and Hot History,” Osiris 7 (1992): 135–163; Frank Close, Too Hot to Handle: The Story of the Race for Cold Fusion (London: W. H. Allen, 1990); and Bart Simon, Undead Science: Science Studies and the Afterlife of Cold Fusion (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002).

الاحتيال وأزمة تكرار التجارب

  • Eugenie Samuel Reich, Plastic Fantastic: How the Biggest Fraud in Physics Shook the Scientific World (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Nicolas Chevassus-au-Louis, Fraud in the Lab: The High Stakes of Scientific Research, tr. Nicholas Elliott (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019); John P. A. Ioannidis, “Why Most Published Research Findings Are False,” PLOS Medicine (August 30, 2005), http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124; and Susan Dominus, “When the Revolution Came for Amy Cuddy,” New York Times Magazine (October 22, 2017).

الإنكار

  • The key reference is Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010). The account of anti-vaxx draws from Michael Specter, Denialism: How Irrational Thinking Hinders Scientific Progress, Harms the Planet, and Threatens Our Lives (New York: Penguin, 2009), chapter 2. On politicization and scientific literacy, see Chris Mooney, The Republican War on Science (New York: Basic Books, 2005); and Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum, Unscientific America: How Scientific Illiteracy Threatens Our Future (New York: Basic Books, 2009).
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