ملاحظات
الجزء الأول: خلفية عن الموضوع
الفصل الأول: مقدمة
(1)
Elizabeth Douglass and Gary Cohn, “Zones of Contention in
Gasoline Pricing,” Los Angeles Times,
June 19, 2005, www.latimes.com.
(2)
Liz Fedor, “Airlines Might Be Ready to Close Fare Gap,”
Minneapolis Star Tribune, January
4, 2005, www.startribune.com.
(3)
Franklin Paul, “Kodak Launches Printer to Compete with HP,
Others,” Washington Post, February 6,
2007, www.washingtonpost.com.
(4)
Anne Broache, “Supreme Court Rules in Printer Ink Dispute,”
March 1, 2006, news.com.com.
(5)
“Kodak’s New Battle Plan: Cheap Printer Ink,” February 6,
2007, www.techdirt.com.
(6)
Franklin Paul, “Kodak Launches Printer to Compete with HP,
Others,” February 6, 2007.
(7)
Ruaridh Nicoll, “Electricity Cut-Off Sparks South African
Township Riot,” The Guardian, August
8, 1997.
(8)
Anita Ramasastry, “Websites that Charge Different Customers
Different Prices,” FindLaw’s Legal
Commentary, 2005,
www.writ.findlaw.com.
(9)
Lisa E. Bolton, Luk Warlop, and Joseph Alba, “Consumer
Perceptions of Price (Un) Fairness,” Journal
of Consumer Research 29 (March 2003):
474–491.
(10)
Peter R. Darke and Darren W. Dahl, “Fairness and
Discounts: The Subjective Value of a Bargain,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 13, no.
3 (2003): 328–338, 334.
(11)
Sarah R. Brosnan and Frans B. M. de Waal, “Monkeys
Reject Unequal Pay,” Nature 425
(2003): 297–299.
(12)
“Animal Behavior, Fair and Square,” The Economist, September 20, 2003:
77.
(13)
Antonio Damasio, Descartes’
Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (London:
Penguin Books, 1994).
الفصل الثاني: لمحة تاريخية
(1)
Diana Wood, Medieval Economic
Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002):
114.
(2)
Ibid., p. 12.
(3)
Ibid., p. 79.
(4)
Joel Kaye, Economy and Nature in
the Fourteenth Century: Money, Market Exchange, and the Emergence of
Scientific Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1998): 7.
(5)
Ibid., 3.
(6)
Wood, 2002, p. 11.
(7)
Richard E. Rubenstein, Aristotle’s Children (Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2004):
184.
(8)
Aristotle, The Nicomachean
Ethics, ed. and trans. David Ross (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1998): 1133a.
(9)
Ibid.
(10)
Ibid.
(11)
Wood, 2002, p. 137.
(12)
Walter Nicholson, Microeconomic
Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions, 3rd ed. (New
York: The Dryden Press, 1985): 13.
(13)
Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on
Nicomachean Ethics, vol. 2, trans., C. I. Litzinger
(Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1964).
(14)
John Baldwin, The Medieval
Theories of the Just Price: Romanists, Canonists and Theologians
in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries
(Philadelphia: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,
1959), n.s. 49, pt. 4.
(15)
Thomas Aquinas, Summa
Theologica, 2a2ae, Question 77, Article
3.
(16)
Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson, The
School of Salamanca: Readings in Spanish Monetary
Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952):
27.
(17)
Alejandro A. Chafuen, Faith and
Liberty: The Economic Thought of the Late Scholastics
(Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003): 114.
(18)
Wood, 2002, p. 137.
(19)
Raymond De Roover, “The Concept of the Just Price:
Theory and Economic Policy,” Journal of
Economic History 18 (December 1958): 422–438,
424.
(20)
Wood, 2002, p. 143.
(21)
Ibid., p. 139.
(22)
Sally Blount, “Whoever Said that Markets Were Fair?”
Negotiation Journal 16, no. 3
(2000): 237–252.
(23)
Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler, “Fairness and the Assumptions
of Economics,” Journal of Business 59, no. 4 (1986):
S285–S300; Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler,
“Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in the
Market,” American Economic Review
76 (September 1986): 728–741.
(24)
David Herlihy, “The Concept of the Just Price:
Discussion,” Journal of Economic
History 18 (December 1958):
437-438.
الجزء الثاني: النموذج
الفصل الثالث: النموذج
(1)
Christel Rutte and David Messick, “An Integrated Model of
Perceived Unfairness in Organizations,” Social
Justice Research 8, no. 3 (1995):
239–261.
(2)
Leon Festinger, A Theory of
Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1957).
(3)
Ibid.
(4)
Sarah Maxwell, “Rule-Based Price Fairness and Its
Effect on Willingness to Purchase,” Journal
of Economic Psychology 23, no. 2 (2002):
193–212.
(5)
George C. Homans, Social
Behavior: Its Elementary Forms (New York: Harcourt
Brace, 1961); J. Stacy Adams, “Toward an Understanding of Inequity,”
Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology 67 (1963): 422–436; Peter Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life (New
York: Wiley, 1967).
(6)
John W. Thibaut and Harold H. Kelley, The Social Psychology of Groups (New
York: Wiley, 1959); John W. Thibaut and Laurens Walker, Procedural Justice: A Psychological
Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum,
1975).
(7)
Alvin W. Gouldner, “The Norm of Reciprocity: A
Preliminary Statement,” American
Sociological Review 25, no. 2 (1960):
161–178.
(8)
Richard Oliver and John E. Swan, “Consumer Perceptions
of Interpersonal Equity and Satisfaction in Transactions: A Field
Survey Approach,” Journal of
Marketing 53 (April 1989): 21–35; Richard Oliver and
John E. Swan, “Equity and Disconfirmation Perceptions as Influences
on Merchant and Product Satisfaction,” Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (December 1989):
372–383.
(9)
J. Stacy Adams, “Toward an Understanding of Inequity,”
Journal of Abnormal Social
Psychology, 67 (1963):
422–436.
(10)
Joel E. Urbany, Thomas J. Madden, and Peter R. Dickson,
“All’s Not Fair in Pricing: An Initial Look at the Dual Entitlement
Principle,” Marketing Letters 1,
no. 1 (1989): 17–25.
(11)
Margaret Campbell, “Perceptions of Price Fairness:
Antecedents and Consequences,” Journal of
Marketing Research 36 (May 1999):
187–199.
الفصل الرابع: المعايير
(1)
Robert B. Cialdini and Raymond R. Reno, “A Focus Theory
of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Reevaluation of
the Role of Norms in Human Behavior,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 24
(1990): 240–248.
(2)
Robert Axelrod, “An Evolutionary Approach to Norms,”
American Political Science
Review 80 (1986): 1095–1111.
(3)
Émile Durkheim, The Division of
Labor in Society, trans., George Simpson (Glencoe,
IL: Free Press, 1933 [1893]).
(4)
Guillermina Jasso, “Rule Finding about Rule Making:
Comparison Processes and the Making of Rules,” in Michael Hechter
and Karl-Dieter Opp (eds.), Social
Norms (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001):
348–393.
(5)
Ragnar Rommetveit, Social Norms
and Roles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1954).
(6)
For similar ideas but from a different angle, see James
Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds
(New York: Anchor Books, 2005).
(7)
E. Allan Lind and Tom R. Tyler, The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice (New
York: Plenum, 1988); Tom R. Tyler and E. Allan, “A Relational Model
of Authority in Groups,” in M. Zanna (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 25,
(San Diego: Academic Press, 1992): 115–191.
(8)
Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic
Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1990): 6.
(9)
See, e.g., Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and
Richard H. Thaler, “Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking:
Entitlements in the Market,” American
Economic Review 76 (September 1986):
728–741.
(10)
See, e.g., Hechter and Opp (eds.),
2001.
(11)
See, e.g., Christina Bicchieri, The Grammar of Society: The Nature and Dynamics of Social
Norms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006).
(12)
See, e.g., Robert C. Ellickson, Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991).
(13)
See, e.g., Jan B. Heide and George John, “Do Norms
Matter in Marketing Relationships?” Journal
of Marketing 56 (April 1992):
32–44.
(14)
See, e.g., Gary Goertz and Paul F. Diehl, “Toward a
Theory of International Norms,” Journal of
Conflict Resolution 36 (December 1992):
634–664.
(15)
Oliver Williamson, The Economic
Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational
Contracting (New York: Free Press,
1975).
(16)
Dale T. Miller, “The Norm of Self Interest,” American Psychologist 54 (December
1999): 1053–1060.
(17)
Heide and John, 1992.
(18)
Goertz and Diehl, 1992.
(19)
David M. Messick and Keith Sentis, “Fairness,
Preference and Fairness Biases,” in David Messick and Karen Cook
(eds.), Equity Theory, (New York:
Praeger, 1983): 61–94.
(20)
Bicchieri, 2006.
(21)
Ellickson, 1991.
(22)
Joachim Kruger and Russell Clement, “The Truly False
Consensus Effect: An Ineradicable and Egocentric Bias in Social
Perception,” Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 67, no. 4 (1994):
596–619.
(23)
Anthony Giddens, The
Constitution of Society (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1984): 22.
(24)
Christine Horne, “Sociological Perspectives on the
Emergence of Social Norms,” in Michael Hechter and Karl-Dieter Opp
(eds.), Social Norms (New York:
Russell Sage Foundation, 2001): 3–34.
(25)
Ibid.
(26)
Barbara Stewart, “$9.50 for the Movies? Vallone
Urges a Boycott,” New York Times,
March 2, 1999.
(27)
“Consumer Boycott of Glaxo Gains Steam with Protest by
Seniors,” February 21, 2003,
www.SeniorJournal.com.
(28)
Abbie Hoffman, Steal This
Book (Pirate Editions 1971),
www.tenant.net/Community/steal/steal.html.
الفصل الخامس: الانفعالات
(1)
Norman Finkel, Not Fair! The
Typology of Commonsense Unfairness (Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association, 2001): 56.
(2)
Craig L. Carr, On
Fairness (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.,
2000).
(3)
Ibid., p. 8.
(4)
Ibid., p. 7.
(5)
Ibid., p. 9.
(6)
Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H.
Thaler, “Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in
the Market,” American Economic
Review 76 (September 1986):
728–741.
(7)
Ibid., p. 729.
(8)
Bruno S. Frey and Werner W. Pommerehne, “On the
Fairness of Pricing: An Empirical Survey among the General
Population,” Journal of Economic Behavior
and Organization 20 (1993):
295–307.
(9)
Raymond Gorman and James B. Kehr, “Fairness as a
Constraint on Profit Seeking: Comment,” American Economic Review 82, no. 1 (1992):
355–358.
(10)
Sarah Maxwell, “What Makes a Price Increase Seem
‘Fair’?” Pricing Strategy and Practice: An
International Journal 3, no. 4 (1995):
21–27.
(11)
Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human
Brain (London: Penguin Books, 1994):
193.
(12)
Ibid., p. 49.
(13)
Antonio Damasio, Looking for
Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain (Orlando,
FL: Harcourt, 2003): 153.
الفصل السادس: التوقعات
(1)
William Samuelson and Richard Zeckhauser, “Status Quo Bias
in Decision Making,” Journal of Risk and
Uncertainty 1 (March 1988): 7–59.
(2)
Ibid., p. 38.
(3)
Richard S. Lazarus, “From Psychological Stress to the
Emotions: A History of Changing Outlooks,” Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993):
1–21.
(4)
Hooman Estelami, “The Price is Right … or is it?
Demographic and Category Effects on Consumer Price Knowledge,” Journal of Product and Brand Management 7,
no. 3 (1998): 254–266.
(5)
Ibid.
(6)
See, e.g., E. Berscheid et al., “Outcome Dependency,
Attention, Attribution, and Attraction,” Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976):
978–989.
(7)
David M. Messick and Keith Sentis, “Fairness, Preference
and Fairness Biases,” in David Messick and Karen Cook (eds.), Equity Theory (New York: Praeger,
1983).
(8)
Linda Babcock and George Loewenstein, “Explaining
Bargaining Impasses: The Role of Self-Serving Biases,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 11, no. 1
(1997): 109–126.
(9)
Richard Oliver and John Swan, “Consumer Perceptions of
Interpersonal Equity and Satisfaction,” Journal
of Marketing 53, no. 2 (1989):
21–34.
(10)
Dennis Rockstroh, “Store Price Scanners: Shoppers
Beware,” Mercury News, September
14, 2005, www.typepad.com.
(11)
Sarah Maxwell and Nicholas Maxwell, “The Perception of
a Fair Price: Self-Interest and Social Norms in Individualist vs.
Collectivist Cultures,” International
Conference of the Academy of Marketing Science (Ann
Arbor, MI: Books on Demand, 1995).
(12)
Jacob Jacoby and Jerry C. Olson, “Consumer Response to
Price: An Attitudinal, Information Processing Perspective,” in Yoram
Wind and Marshall Greenberg (eds.), Moving
Ahead with Attitude Research (Chicago: American
Marketing Society, 1977).
(13)
Manohar U. Kalwani et al., “A Price Expectations Model
of Customer Brand Choice,” Journal of
Marketing Research 27 (August 1990):
251–261.
(14)
David Leonhardt, “ The Shock of the New Entry Fee,”
New York Times, September 26,
2004.
(15)
Dalia Sussman, “Poll: Americans Angry About Gas
Prices,” ABC News, August 22,
2005, abcnews.go.com.
(16)
Dhruv Grewal and Larry Compeau, “Pricing and Public
Policy: A Research Agenda and an Overview,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 18, no.
1 (1999): 3–10.
(17)
Noah Rothbaum, “10 Things Your Rental Car Company Won’t
Tell You,” June 13, 2006, aol.smartmoney.com.
(18)
David Streitfeld, “Amazon Mystery: Pricing of Books,”
Los Angeles Times, January 2,
2007, www.calendarlive.com.
(19)
Julio Rothemberg, “Fair Pricing,” 2004,
www.people.hbs.edu.
(20)
A. S. Blinder, et al., Asking
About Prices: A New Approach to Understanding Price
Stickiness (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998):
309.
(21)
Samuelson and Zeckhauser, 1988.
(22)
Richard Thaler, “Mental Accounting and Consumer
Choice,” Marketing Science 3
(Summer 1985): 199–214.
(23)
Russell Winer, “A Reference Price Model of Brand Choice
for Frequently Purchased Products,” Journal
of Consumer Research 13 (September 1986):
250–256.
(24)
James M. Lattin and Randolf E. Bucklin, “Reference
Effects of Price and Promotion on Brand Choice Behavior,” Journal of Marketing Research 26, no. 3
(1989): 229–310.
(25)
Gurumurthy Kalyanaram and John D. Little, “A Price
Response Model Developed from Perceptual Theories” (working paper,
Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA, 1987).
(26)
Peter R. Dickson and Alan G. Sawyer, “ The Price
Knowledge and Search of Supermarket Shoppers,” Journal of Marketing 54, no. 3 (1990):
42–53.
(27)
Chris Janiszewski and Donald R. Lichtenstein, “A Range
Theory Account of Price Perception,” Journal
of Consumer Research 25 (March 1999):
353–368.
(28)
Kent B. Monroe and Angela Y. Lee, “Remembering Versus
Knowing: Issues in Buyers’ Processing of Price Information,”
Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science 27, no. 2 (1999):
207–225.
(29)
Tracy A. Suter and Scot Burton, “Believability and
Consumer Perceptions of Implausible Reference Prices in Retail
Advertisements,” Psychology &
Marketing 13, no. 1 (1996):
37–54.
(30)
Federal Trade Commission, FTC
Guides against Deceptive Pricing,
www.ftc.gov/bcp/guides/decptprc.htm: Section 233.
1.
(31)
“Florida Begins Probe of ‘Reference’ Prices Used for
Macy’s Sales,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Edition), January 7,
1997.
(32)
Patrick J. Kaufman, N. Craig Smith, and Gwendolyn K.
Ortmeyer, “Deception in Retailer High-Low Pricing: A ‘Rule of
Reason’ Approach,” Journal of
Retailing 70, no. 2 (1994):
115–138.
الفصل السابع: النتائج
(1)
Tracie Rozhon, “Mrs. Clinton ‘Listens,’ This Time to House
Prices,” New York Times, August 12,
1999.
(2)
Richard Harrington, “Ticket Auction Trend May Cost You,”
July 6, 2006, MontereyHerald.com.
(3)
Vera Baird, “Getting Carter—The Future of Legal Aid,”
The Times, July 4, 2006,
www.timesonline.co.uk.
(4)
Morton Deutsch, Distributive
Justice: A Social-Psychological
Perspective (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1985).
(5)
Jason A. Coquitt and Jerome M. Cherthoff, “Explaining
Injustice: The Interactive Effect of Explanation and Outcome on Fairness
Perceptions and Task Motivation,” Journal of
Management 28, no. 5 (2002):
591–610.
(6)
Jen-Hung Huan and Chia-Yen Lin, “The Explanation Effects on
Consumer Perceived Justice, Satisfaction and Loyalty Improvement: An
Exploratory Study,” The Journal of American
Academy of Business 7, no. 2 (2005):
212–218.
(7)
John C. Shaw, Eric Wild and Jason A Conquitt, “To Justify
or Excuse? A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effects of Explanation,”
Journal of Applied Psychology 88,
no. 3 (2003): 444–458.
(8)
Ibid.
(9)
Janice Bohm and Bryan Hendricks, “Effects of Interpersonal
Touch, Degree of Justification, and Sex of Participants in Compliance
with Request,” The Journal of Social
Psychology 137, no. 4 (1997):
460–469.
(10)
Sarah Maxwell, “Rule-Based Price Fairness and Its Effect on
Willingness to Purchase,” Journal of Economic
Psychology 23, no. 2 (2002):
193–212.
(11)
Michael B. Lupfer et al., “Folk Conceptions of Fairness and
Unfairness,” European Journal of Social
Psychology 30 (2000): 405–428.
(12)
Dan Ariely, George Loewenstein and Drazen Prelec,
“‘Coherent Arbitrariness:’ Stable Demand Curves without Stable
Preferences,” The Quarterly Journal of
Economics 118, no. 1 (2003): 73–106; Dan Ariely,
George Loewenstein, and Drazen Prelec, “Tom Sawyer and the
Construction of Value,” Journal of Economic
Behavior & Organization 60, no. 1 (2006):
1–28.
(13)
“Comings & Goings,” New
York Times, April 9, 2006.
(14)
Richard L. Oliver and John E. Swan, “Equity and
Disconfirmation Perceptions as Influences on Merchant and Product
Satisfaction,” Journal of Consumer
Research 16 (December 1989):
372–383.
(15)
Margaret Neale, Vandra L. Huber, and Gregory B.
Northcraft, “The Framing of Negotiations: Contextual Versus Task
Frame,” Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Making 39 (1987):
228–241.
(16)
Richard L. Oliver and John E. Swan, “Consumer
Perceptions of Interpersonal Equity and Satisfaction in
Transactions: A Field Survey Approach,” Journal of Marketing 53 (April 1989):
21–35.
(17)
Edward E. Sampson, “On Justice as Equality,” Journal of Social Issues 31, no. 3
(1975): 45–64.
(18)
John Rawls, A Theory of
Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1971).
(19)
Hal R. Varian, “Distributive Justice, Welfare
Economics, and the Theory of Fairness,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4 (1975):
223–247.
(20)
Kelly L. Haws and William O. Bearden, “Dynamic Pricing
and Consumer Fairness Perceptions,” Journal
of Consumer Research 33, no. 3 (2006):
304–311.
(21)
Peter R. Darke and Darren W. Dahl, “Fairness and
Discounts: The Subjective Value of a Bargain,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 13, no.
3 (2003): 328–338.
(22)
Tamar Lewin, “Students Find $100 Textbooks Cost
$50 Purchased Overseas,” New York
Times, October 21, 2003.
(23)
Daniel Kahneman, Jack Knetsch, and Richard Thaler,
“Fairness and the Assumptions of Economics,” Journal of Business 59 (October 1986): S285–S300;
Robert Forsythe et al., “Fairness in Simple Bargaining Experiments,”
Games and Economic Behavior 6
(1994): 347–369.
(24)
Gary E. Bolton and Rami Zwick, “Anonymity versus
Punishment in Ultimatum Bargaining,” Games
and Economic Behavior 10 (1995):
95–121.
(25)
Sampson, 1975.
(26)
Karen F. Stein, “Explaining Ghetto Consumer Behavior:
Hypotheses from Urban Sociology,” Journal of
Consumer Affairs 14, no. 1 (1980):
232–242.
(27)
Morton Deutsch, “Equity, Equality, and Need: What
Determines Which Value Will Be Used as the Basis of Distributive
Justice?” Journal of Social
Issues 31, no. 3 (1975):
137–149.
(28)
Milt Freudenheim, “Low Payments by U.S. Raise Medical
Bills Billions a Year,” New York
Times, June 1, 2006.
(29)
“Lautenschlager to File Complaints against Two Area
Hospitals,” Milwaukee Business
Journal, November 7, 2005, Milwaukee.bizjournal.com.
(30)
Sue Kirchhoff, “Efforts Renewed to Control Excessive
Cost of Payday Loans,” USA Today,
December 1, 2006.
(31)
Bernard Wasow, “A New Minimum Benefit for Social
Security,” The Social Security Network, April 12, 2004,
www.socsec.org.
(32)
Melissa Campanelli, “What’s in Store for EDLP?”
Sales and Marketing
Management 145, no. 9 (1993):
56–59.
(33)
Alex Berenson, “A Cancer Drug Shows Promise, at a Price
That Many Can’t Pay,” New York
Times, February 15, 2006,
www.nytimes.com.
(34)
“Price Gouging on Cancer Drugs?” New York Times, February 17, 2006,
www.nytimes.com.
(35)
Ruaridh Nicoll, “Electricity Cut-Off Sparks South
African Township Riot,” The
Guardian, August 8, 1997.
(36)
Deutsch, 1975.
الفصل الثامن: العزو السببي
(1)
Fritz Heider, The Psychology of
Interpersonal Relations (New York: Wiley, 1958); Harold
H. Kelley, “The Processes of Causal Attribution,” American Psychologist 28 (February 1973):
107–123; Bernard Weiner, An Attributional Theory
of Motivation and Emotion (New York: Springer-Verlag,
1986).
(2)
Bernard Weiner, “Attributional Thoughts about Consumer
Behavior,” Journal of Consumer
Research 27, no. 3 (2000):
382–387.
(3)
Ibid.
(4)
Matthew Rabin, “Incorporating Fairness into Game Theory
and Economics,” American Economic
Review 83, no. 5 (1993):
1281–1302.
(5)
Sally Blount, “When Social Outcomes Aren’t Fair: The
Effect of Causal Attributions on Preferences,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes 63, no. 2 (August 1995):
131–144.
(6)
Margaret Campbell, “Why Did You Do That? The Important
Role of Inferred Motive in Perceptions of Price Fairness,” Journal of Product and Brand Management
8, no. 2 (1999): 145–153.
(7)
Sarah Maxwell, “The Effects of Differential Textbook
Pricing: On-Line vs. In-Store,” Journal of
Media Economics 16, no. 2 (2003):
87–95.
(8)
Margaret Campbell, “Perceptions of Price Fairness:
Antecedents and Consequences,” Journal of
Marketing Research 36 (May 1999):
187–199.
(9)
Rajiv Vaidyanathan and Praveen Aggarwal, “Who Is the
Fairest of Them All? An Attributional Approach to Price Fairness
Perceptions,” Journal of Business
Research 56, no. 6 (2003):
453–459.
(10)
Arthur M. Okun, Prices and Quantities: A Macroeconomic Analysis (Washington
DC: The Brookings Institution, 1981).
(11)
Michael Tsiros, Vikas Mittal, and William T. Ross, Jr.,
“The Role of Attributions in Customer Satisfaction: A
Reexamination,” Journal of Consumer
Research 31, no. 2 (2004):
478–483.
(12)
Valerie Folkes, Susan Koletsky, and John L. Graham, “A
Field Study of Causal Inference and Consumer Reaction: The View from
the Airport,” Journal of Consumer
Research 13 (March 1987):
534–539.
(13)
N. T. Feather and J. G. Simon, “Fear of Success and
Causal Attribution for Outcome,” Journal of
Personality 41 (1973):
525–542.
(14)
Sarah Maxwell, “Biased Attributions of a Price
Increase: Effects of Culture and Gender,” Journal of Consumer Marketing 16, no. 1 (1999):
9–23.
(15)
Jaebeom Suh and Jeffrey Hess, “Individualism vs.
Collectivism: Cultural Moderation of Consumer Attribution,”
Proceedings, American Marketing
Association (Summer 1996):
188–192.
(16)
Harold H. Kelley, “The Process of Causal Attribution,”
American Psychologist 28
(February 1973): 107–123; Gifford W. Bradley, “Self-Serving Biases
in the Attribution Process; A Reexamination of the Fact or Fiction
Question,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 36, no. 1 (1978):
56–71.
(17)
Weiner, 1986.
الفصل التاسع: العملية
(1)
Jerald Greenberg, “Stress Fairness to Fare No Stress:
Managing Workplace Stress by Promoting Organizational Justice,”
Organizational Dynamics 33, no. 4
(2004): 352–364.
(2)
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(5)
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(6)
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Alternatives Available,” Kansas State
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Making,” Journal of Consumer
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Combination,” Journal of Product and Brand
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448–454.
(10)
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Efficiency: An Introduction to Public Utility Pricing
(Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing, 1978); Edward E. Zajac,
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Douglas N. Jones and Patrick C. Mann, “The Fairness
Criterion in Public Utility Regulations: Does Fairness Still
Matter?” Journal of Economic
Issues 35, no. 1 (2001):
153–172.
(12)
Joe Sharkey, “Business Travel: One Critic Shows the
Mounting Animosity over Different Air Fares for Business and Leisure
Fliers,” New York Times, March 6,
2002.
(13)
Roy Furchgott, “You Say You Didn’t Buy It. But Did You
Read the Tiny Type?” New York
Times, December 7, 1997.
(14)
Sarah Maxwell, “Rule-Based Price Fairness and its
Effect on Willingness to Purchase,” Journal
of Economic Psychology 23, no. 2 (2002):
191–212.
(15)
Diana Wood, Medieval Economic
Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
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Uwe E. Reinhardt, “The Pricing of U.S. Hospital Services: Chaos behind a
Veil of Secrecy,” Health Affairs 25, no. 1 (2006): 57–69.
الفصل العاشر: العقاب
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Robert Axelrod, “An Evolutionary Approach to Norms,”
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(8)
Michael E. Price, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby,
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Preliminary Statement,” American
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Gary Goertz and Paul F. Diehl, “Toward a Theory of
International Norms,” Journal of Conflict
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Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to
Serfdom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994
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Gregory Gundlach and Ravi S. Achrol, “Governance in
Exchange: Contract Law and its Alternatives,” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing
12 (October 1993): 141–155.
(14)
Ragnar Rommetveit, Social Norms
and Roles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1954).
(15)
Robert Piron and Luis Fernandez, “Are Fairness
Constraints on Profit-Seeking Important?” Journal of Economic Psychology 16 (1995):
73–96.
(16)
Roger Bougie, Rik Pieters, and Marcel Zeelenberg,
“Angry Customers Don’t Come Back, They Get Back: The Experience and
Behavioral Implications of Anger and Dissatisfaction in Services,”
Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science 31, no. 4 (2003):
377–393.
(17)
Jim Rendon, “What Gas Stations Won’t Tell You,” July
11, 2006, aol. smartmoney.com.
(18)
Sara H. Goo, “Underdogs in Battle Against Gas Gougers,”
September 23, 2005, washingtonpost.com.
(19)
Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H.
Thaler, “Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in
the Market,” American Economic
Review 76 (September 1986):
728–741.
(20)
Jean-Robert Tyran and Dirk Engelmann, “To Buy or Not to
Buy? An Experimental Study of Consumer Boycotts in Retail Markets,”
Economica 72 (2005):
1–16.
(21)
Ipsos-Reid Survey, cited by Mark Dolliver, “Boomers as
Boycotters,” Adweek, (Eastern
edition), December 4, 2000: 44.
(22)
Price, Cosmides, and Tooby,
2002.
(23)
Natalie Angier, “ The Urge to Punish Cheats: It Isn’t
Merely Vengeance,” New York
Times, January 22, 2002.
(24)
Nada Nasr Bechwati and Maureen Morrin, “Outraged
Consumers: Getting Even at the Expense of Getting a Good Deal,”
Journal of Consumer
Psychology 13, no. 4 (2003):
440–453.
(25)
Carpenter, Matthews, and Ong’ong’a,
2004.
(26)
Ernst Fehr and Klaus M. Schmidt, “A Theory of Fairness,
Competition, and Cooperation,” Quarterly
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817–868.
(27)
Alan G. Sanfey et al., “The Neural Basis of Economic
Decision-Making in the Ultimatum Game,” Science 300 (2003):
1755–1758.
(28)
Daria Knoch, et al., “Diminishing Reciprocal Fairness
by Disrupting the Right Prefrontal Cortex,” Sciencexpress, October 5, 2006,
www.sciencexpress.org.
(29)
D. DeQuervain et al., “The Neural Basis of Altruistic
Punishment,” Science 305 (2004):
1254–1258.
(30)
J. Keith Murnighan and Madan M. Pillutla, “Fairness
versus Self-Interest: Asymmetric Moral Imperatives in Ultimatum
Bargaining,” in Roderick M. Kramer and David M. Messick (eds.),
Negotiation as a Social
Process, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
1995), 240–267.
(31)
Ernst Fehr and Urs Fischbacher, “Third-Party Punishment
and Social Norms,” Evolution and Human
Behavior 25 (2004): 63–87.
(32)
Fehr and Schmidt, 1999.
(33)
Alvin E. Roth et al., “Bargaining and Market Behavior
in Jerusalem, Ljubljana, Pittsburg, and Tokyo: An Experimental
Study,” American Economic Review
81 (December 1991): 1068–1095.
(34)
Joseph Henrich et al., “Costly Punishment Across Human
Societies,” Science 312, no. 5781
(June 23, 2006): 1767–1770.
(35)
Miller and Vidmar, 1981.
(36)
Sarah Maxwell, “Sanctioning Unfair Pricing: Making the
Punishment Fit the Crime,” Proceedings,
Summer Conference (Chicago: American Marketing
Association, 2003).
(37)
Bruce Mohl, “Wal-Mart Settles Lawsuit on Item-Pricing
for $7.35M,” The Boston
Globe, January 22, 2004,
www.consumerwatchdog.org.
الفصل الحادي عشر: السلطة
(1)
Federal Highway Administration, “Highway Statistics,” 2006,
www.fhwa.dot.gov.
(2)
“For Oil Giants, Pricey Gas Means Big Profits,” ABC News,
January 25, 2006, abcnews.go.com.
(3)
Tom Curry, “What Is Price ‘Gouging’? And Can It Be
Stopped?” MSNBC, April 26, 2006,
www.msnbc.msn.com.
(4)
Pete Domenici, Representative from New Mexico, quoted in
“Big Oil Defends Profits,” CBS News, November 9, 2005,
www.cbsnews.com.
(5)
White House, “President Discusses Energy at National Small
Business Conference,” press release, April 27, 2005,
www.whitehouse.gov.
(6)
Curry, 2006.
(7)
Robert A. Dahl, “The Concept of Power,” Behavioral Science 2 no. 3 (July 1957):
201–215.
(8)
Kurt Eichenwald, “Archer Daniels Said to Settle
Sweetened Price-Fixing Case,” New York
Times, June 18, 2004.
(9)
Stefano DellaVigna and Ulrike Malmendier, “Contract
Design and Self-Control: Theory and Evidence,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 119,
no. 2 (May 2004): 353–384.
(10)
Gary L. Frazier and Sudhir H. Kale,
“Manufacturer-Distributor Relationships: A Sellers’ Versus Buyers’
Market Perspective,” International Marketing
Review 6, no. 6 (1989): 7–26.
(11)
F. Robert Dwyer, Paul H. Schurr, and Sejo Oh,
“Developing Buyer-Seller Relationships,” Journal of Marketing 51 (April 1987):
11–27.
(12)
Francis Bacon, Religious
Meditations, Of Heresies (Philadelphia: William
Bradford, 1688), electronic resource,
www.library.fordham.edu.
(13)
“Crowned at Last,” The
Economist, March 31, 2005,
www.economist.com .
(14)
Behrang Rezabakhsh et al., “Consumer Power: A
Comparison of the Old Economy and the Internet Economy,” Journal of Consumer Policy 29 (2006):
3–36.
(15)
John R. French and Bertram Raven, “The Bases of Social
Power,” in Dorwin Cartwright (ed.), Studies
in Social Power (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1959): 150–167.
(16)
X. Pan, B. T. Ratchford, and V. Shankar, “The Evolution
of Price Dispersion in Internet Retail Markets,” Advances in Applied Microeconomics 12
(2003): 85–105.
(17)
“Crowned at Last” 2005.
(18)
Linda D. Molm, “Imbalanced Structures, Unfair
Strategies: Power and Justice in Social Exchange,” American Sociological Review 59, no. 1
(1994): 98–121.
(19)
F. Robert Dwyer, “Are Two Better than One? Bargaining
Behavior and Outcomes in an Asymmetrical Power Relationship,”
Journal of Consumer Research
11 (September 1984): 680–693.
(20)
Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H.
Thaler, “Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in
the Market,” American Economic
Review 76 (September 1986):
728–741.
(21)
Robert H. Frank, Passions
within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1988).
(22)
Jeffrey Bradach and Robert Eccles, “Price, Authority
and Trust,” Annual Review of
Sociology 15 (1989): 97–106.
(23)
“E-Commerce,” The Economist:
The World in 2007: 94.
(24)
L. Walker, et al., “Reactions of Participants and
Observers to Modes of Adjudication,” Journal
of Applied Social Psychology 4 (1974):
295–310.
الفصل الثاني عشر: الثقة
(1)
Kanchan Vasdev, “All 200 Milk Samples Fail Test,” Tribune News Service, August 13, 2006,
www.tribuneindia.com.
(2)
Akshay R. Rao and Mark E. Bergen, “Price Premium Variations
as a Consequence of Buyers’ Lack of Information,” Journal of Consumer Research 19, no. 3
(1992): 412–424.
(3)
David M. Messick and Roderick M. Kramer, “Trust as a Form
of Shallow Morality,” in Karen Cook (ed.), Trust
in Society, (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001):
89–117.
(4)
Roy J. Lewicki, Daniel J. McAllister, and Robert J. Bier,
“Trust and Distrust: New Relationships and Realities,” Academy of Management Review 23, no. 3
(1998): 438–458.
(5)
Shelly Taylor, “A Categorization Approach to Stereotyping,”
in D. L. Hamilton (ed.), Cognitive Processes in
Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior, (Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 1981): 88–114.
(6)
Oliver Williamson, “Calculativeness, Trust and Economic
Organization,” Journal of Law and
Economics 36 (1993): 453–486.
(7)
Mark Granovetter, “Economic Action and Social Structure:
The Problem of Embeddedness,” American Journal
of Sociology 91, no. 3 (1985):
481–510.
(8)
Kenneth Arrow, The Limits of
Organization (New York: Norton,
1974).
(9)
Leonard L. Berry, “Retailers with a Future,” Marketing Management 5 (Spring 1996):
38–46.
(10)
Amanda Vickers and Jackie Smith, “Why Consumer Trust Is the
Key to Repeat Business,” The Wise
Marketer, January 2005,
www.thewisemarketer.com.
(11)
Glen L. Urban, “The Trust Imperative” (working paper no.
4302-03, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 2003), http://ssrn.com/abstract=400421 or
DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.400421.
(12)
John Drummond, “The Value of Being a ‘Trusted’ Company,”
Corporate Responsibility
Management 2, no. 4 (2006): 12-13.
(13)
Donald L. Potter, “Moving from a DRTV ‘Need-It-Now’ Sell to
a ‘Trust-Marketing’ Relationship,” Response
Magazine, February 1, 2005,
www.responsemagazine.com.
(14)
Lynn Jeffress and Jean-Paul Mayanobe, “A World Struggle Is
Underway: An Interview with Jose Bove,” Z
Magazine, June 2001,
www.thirdworldtraveler.com.
(15)
Messick and Kramer, 2001.
(16)
Jeffrey Bradach and Robert Eccles, “Price, Authority and
Trust,” Annual Review of Sociology 13
(1989): 97–118.
(17)
Larue T. Hosmer, “Trust: The Connecting Link between
Organizational Theory and Philosophical Ethics,” Academy of Management Review 20, no. 2
(1995): 379–403.
(18)
Roger C. Mayer, James H. Davis, and F. David Schoorman,
“An Integration Model of Organizational Trust,” Academy of Management Review 20, no. 3
(1995): 709–844.
(19)
Ernst Fehr, Urs Fischbacher, and Michael Kosfeld,
“Neuroeconomic Foundations of Trust and Social Preferences: Initial
Evidence,” American Economic
Review 95, no. 2 (2005):
346–351.
(20)
Francis Fukuyama, Trust (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995):
26.
(21)
James Coleman, “Social Capital in the Creation of Human
Capital,” American Journal of
Sociology 94 (1988): S95–S120; Robert D. Putnam, “The
Prosperous Community: Social Capital and Public Life,” American Prospect 13 (1993):
35–42.
(22)
Fukuyama, 1995.
(23)
Yankelovich, “A Crisis of Confidence: Rebuilding the
Bonds of Trust,” State of Consumer Trust
Report, 2004,
www.compad.com.au.
(24)
Russell Hardin, “Conceptions and Explanations of
Trust,” in Karen Cook (ed.), Trust in
Society (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001):
3–39.
(25)
Peter Blau, Exchange and Power
in Social Life (New York: Wiley,
1967).
(26)
See, e.g., Frank K. Sonnenberg, “Trust Me, Trust Me
Not,” Journal of Business
Strategy 15, no. 1 (January/February 1994): 14–16;
John D. Butler Jr., “Toward Understanding and Measuring Conditions
of Trust: Evolution of a Conditions of Trust Inventory,” Journal of Management 17, no. 3 (1991):
643–663.
(27)
See, e.g., Marshall Sashkin and Richard L. Williams,
“Does Fairness Make a Difference?” Organizational Dynamics 19, no. 2 (1990):
56–71.
(28)
L. G. Zucker, “Production of Trust: Institutional
Sources of Economic Structure, 1840–1920,” in B. M. Staw and L. L.
Cummings (eds.), Research in Organization
Behavior, vol. 8, (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986):
53–111.
(29)
Hosmer, 1995.
(30)
Una McMahon-Beattie, “Future of Revenue Management:
Trust and Revenue Management,” Journal of
Revenue and Pricing Management 4, no. 4 (2005):
406-407.
(31)
Margaret Campbell, “Perceptions of Price Fairness:
Antecedents and Consequences,” Journal of
Marketing Research 36 (May 1999):
187–199.
(32)
Morton Deutsch, “Trust and Suspicion,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 2,
no. 4 (1958): 265–279.
(33)
Campbell, 1999.
(34)
John W. Huppertz, Sidney J. Arenson, and Richard H.
Evans, “An Application of Equity Theory to Buyer-Seller Exchange
Situations,” Journal of Marketing
Research 15 (May 1978):
250–260.
(35)
Rosemary Kalapurakal, Peter R. Dickson, and Joel E.
Urbany, “A Conceptual Model of Price Fairness Judgments” (working
paper, Ohio State University, 1992): 17.
(36)
Robert Bies and Thomas Tripp, “Beyond Distrust:
‘Getting Even’ and the Need for Revenge,” in Roderick Kramer and Tom
R. Tyler (eds.), Trust in
Organizations, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
1996): 252–283.
(37)
Fred M. Feinberg, Aradhna Krishna, and Z. John Zhang,
“Do We Care What Others Get? A Behaviorist Approach to Targeted
Promotions,” Journal of Marketing
Research 39, no. 3 (2002):
277–291.
(38)
Joel Brockner and Phyllis A. Siegel, “Understanding the
Interaction between Procedural and Distributive Justice,” in
Roderick M. Kramer and Tom R. Tyler (eds.), Trust in Organizations, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, 1996): 390–410.
(39)
Yankelovich, 2004.
(40)
Thomas T. Nagle and Reed K. Holden, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995).
(41)
Kees van den Bos and Henk A. M. Wilke, “When Do We Need
Procedural Fairness? The Role of Trust in Authority,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 75, no. 6 (1998):
1449–1458.
(42)
Jean Ensminger, “Reputations, Trust, and the Principal
Agent Problem,” in Karen Cook (ed.), Trust
in Society, (New York: Russell Sage Foundation,
2001): 185–201.
(43)
Yankelovich, 2004.
(44)
Brockner and Segal, 1996.
(45)
Sunanda N. Ganju, “Gender Revolution after White
Revolution,” India Together,
September 20, 2005,
www.indiatogether.org.
الجزء الثالث: التطبيقات
الفصل الثالث عشر: التعديلات
(1)
Anna Shoup, “The Global Warming Debate: Emissions
Trading Ins and Outs,” June 5, 2006,
www.pbs.org/newshour.
(2)
Collin Dunn, “The Social Costs of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions,” February 10, 2006,
www.treehugger.com.
(3)
“A Soluble Problem,” The
Economist, March 24, 2000: 20.
(4)
John Peet, “Water, Water Everywhere: And Scarcely a
Drop of Common Sense in Its Pricing,” The
Economist: The World in 2004:
18.
(5)
Ronald Bailey, “The Case for Selling Human Organs,”
Reasonline, April 18, 2001,
reason.com.
(6)
John Stossel, interviewed on Your World with Neil Cavuto, Fox News, June 13,
2006, mediamatters.org.
(7)
Claire Andre and Manuel Velasquez, “Kidneys for Sale,”
Issues in Ethics 1, no. 2
(1988), www.scu.edu/ethics.
(8)
Claudia Kalb, “Ethics, Eggs and Embryos,” Newsweek, June 20, 2005:
52.
(9)
Norbert Schechter, “Economic Damages under New York
Wrongful Death Statute” June, 2006,
www.nysscpa.org.
(10)
Jim Yardley, “3 Deaths in China Reveal Disparity in
Price of Lives,” New York Times,
April 14, 2006.
(11)
Randy Kennedy, “The Day the Traffic Disappeared,”
New York Times, April 20,
2003.
(12)
“Charge Late Fees for Missed Appointments?” The [Non]billable Hour,” June 27, 2006,
thenonbillablehour.typepad.com.
(13)
“Road Pricing,” August 28, 2006,
en.wikipedia.org.
(14)
Adam Raphael, “Road Pricing: Queue or Pay?” The Economist: The World in 2003:
79.
(15)
Randy Cohen, “Line Up,” New
York Times Magazine, July 24,
2005.
(16)
Sheryl E. Kimes and Jochen Wirtz, “Has Revenue
Management Become Acceptable?” Journal of
Service Research 6, no. 2 (2003):
125–137.
(17)
Dhruv Grewal, David M. Hardesty, and Gopalkrishnan R.
Iyer, “The Effects of Buyer Identification and Purchase Timing on
Consumers’ Perceptions of Trust, Price Fairness and Repurchase
Intentions,” Journal of Interactive
Marketing 18, no. 4 (2004): 87–100,
www.interscience.com.
(18)
“American Socialism: Battling with Demons,” The Economist, September 24, 2005:
41.
(19)
“Copying Rights,” Newsweek, March 26, 2007: 11.
(20)
David Rowell, “Airline Zen: Less Is More,” November
2001 (updated February 2005),
www.thetravelinsider.info.
الفصل الرابع عشر: البقشيش
(1)
See, e.g., Ofer H.Azar, “Optimal Monitoring with External
Incentives: The Case of Tipping,” Southern
Economic Journal, 71 no. 1 (2004):
170–181.
(2)
Orn B. Bodvarsson and William A Gibson, “Economics and
Restaurant Gratuities: Determining Tip Rates,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 56, no. 2
(1997): 187–203.
(3)
Robert H. Frank, Passions within
Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions (New York:
Norton, 1988).
(4)
Jeff D. Opdyke, “Love & Money: 10%? 15%? 20%? We Are
What We Tip,” Wall Street Journal,
July 10, 2005.
(5)
Ibid.
(6)
Sarah Maxwell, “Fair Price, Fair Practice: Dual
Entitlements for the Consumer,” Proceedings,
Fordham Pricing Conference (New York: Fordham University,
2005).
(7)
Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler,
“Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in the
Market,” American Economic Review, 76
(September 1986): 728–741.
(8)
Sarah Maxwell, “KKT Revisited” (working paper, Fordham
Pricing Center, Fordham University, New York,
2006).
(9)
Michael Conlin, Michael Lynn, and Ted O’Donoghue, “The Norm
of Restaurant Tipping,” Journal of Economic
Behavior and Organization 52, no. 3 (2003): 297–308;
Michael Lynn and Michael McCall, “Gratitude and Gratuity: A
Meta-Analysis of Research on the Service-Tipping Relationship,”
Journal of Socio-Economics 29,
no. 2 (2000): 203–214.
(10)
Uri Ben-Zion and Edi Karni, “Tip Payments and the Quality
of Service,” in O. C. Ashenfelter and W. E. Oates (eds.), Essays in Labor Market Analysis, (New York:
Wiley, 1977): 37–44.
(11)
Bodvarsson and Gibson, 1997.
(12)
Kerry Seagrave, Tipping: An
American Social History of Gratuities (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 1998).
(13)
William Scott, The Itching
Palm: A Study of the Habit of Tipping in America
(Philadelphia: Penn Publishing Company,
1916).
(14)
Danielle Archibagi, “Tips and Democracy,” Dissent, Spring 2004,
www.dissent.magazine.org.
(15)
Ofer H. Azar, “The Social Norm of Tipping: Does It
Improve Social Welfare?,” Journal of
Economics 85, no. 2 (2005):
141–149.
(16)
Jeanne Sahadi, “Tipping Revisited: Readers Respond,”
June 5, 2003, cnnmoney.
printthis.clickability.com.
(17)
Bodvarsson and Gibson, 1997, p.
187.
(18)
Natalie MacLean, “Gratuitous Praise,” February 11,
2005, www.smh.com.au/articles.
(19)
Michael Lynn, George M. Zinkhan, and Judy Harris,
“Consumer Tipping: A Cross-Country Study,” Journal of Consumer Research 20, no. 3 (1993):
478–488.
(20)
James Surowiecki, “Check, Please,” The New Yorker, September 5, 2005:
58.
(21)
Michael Lynn, “Restaurant Tipping and Service Quality:
A Tenuous Relationship,” Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly 42, no. 1 (2001):
14–20.
(22)
Chris, August 8, 2005,
majikthise.typepad.com.
(23)
“History,” National Restaurant
Association (2005),
www.restaurant.org/aboutus/history.
(24)
Nancy Benac, “Tipping Debate,” July 3, 2002,
www.icrsurvey.com.
(25)
Ofer H. Azar, “What Sustains Social Norms and How They
Evolve? The Case of Tipping,” Journal of
Economic Behavior and Organization 54, no. 1 (2004):
49–57.
(26)
Ibid.
(27)
Seagrave, 1998.
(28)
The Associated Press 2002 Poll, in “Tipping Notes,”
Topeka Capital Journal,
August 25, 2002,
www.cjonline.com.
(29)
Bodvarsson and Gibson, 1997.
(30)
R. Mildred, August 28, 2005,
majikthise.typepad.com.
(31)
Letitia Baldridge’s New
Complete Guide to Executive Manners (New York: Rawson
Associates, Macmillan Publishing Company,
1993).
(32)
Warren St. John, “Time to Render unto Doormen,”
New York Times, December 21,
2003.
(33)
Sean Foley, August 28, 2005,
majikthise.typepad.com.
(34)
Stevenson Swanson, “Tips Giving Way to Service
Charges?” Charlotte Observer,
October 14, 2005,
www.charlotte.com.
(35)
Matthias Klaes, “Some Remarks on the Place of
Psychological and Social Elements in a Theory of Custom,” American Journal of Economics and
Sociology 61, no. 2 (2002):
523.
(36)
“Forget the Tip … Market Trends Drive a Wage,” 2005,
www.thinkandask.com.
الفصل الخامس عشر: التمييز
(1)
Anita Ramasastry, “Websites that Charge Different Customers
Different Prices,” June 20, 2005,
writ.news.findlaw.com.
(2)
Martha Heller, “Is Dynamic Pricing Really So Bad?” October
25, 2000, comment.cio.com/soundoff.
(3)
D. Streitfeld, “On the Web, Price Tags Blur,” Washington Post, September 27,
2000.
(4)
Howard Marmorstein, Jeanne Rossomme, and Dan Sarel,
“Unleashing the Power of Yield Management in the Internet Era:
Opportunities and Challenges,” California
Management Review 45, no. 3 (2003):
147–167.
(5)
Joseph Turow, “Open to Exploitation: American Shoppers
Online and Offline,” (Annenberg Public Policy Center, University of
Pennsylvania, 2005),
www.appcpenn.org.
(6)
Debbie Bocian, Keith Ernst, and Wei Li, “Unfair Lending:
The Effect of Race and Ethnicity on the Price of Subprime Mortgages,”
Center for Responsible Lending, May 31, 2006,
www.responsiblelending.org.
(7)
Jacque Storm, “Gender-Based Price Discrimination: Does It
Require a New Solution or Enforcement of an Old Law?” South Dakota
Legislative Research Council (Issue Memorandum 96–22,
2000).
(8)
Joanna Grossman, “The End of ‘Ladies’ Night’ in New Jersey:
A Controversial Ruling Deems the Practice Sex Discrimination against
Men,” 2004, lawjig@hofstra.edu.
(9)
Edward E. Zajac, Fairness or
Efficiency: An Introduction to Public Utility Pricing
(Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1978).
(10)
Judith Dancoff, “Done Deals,” MM Magazine (January/February 2002):
13.
(11)
Richard Thaler, “Mental Accounting and Consumer
Choice,” Marketing Science 4
(Summer 1985): 199–214.
(12)
Michael J. McCarthy, “Taking the Value Out of
Value-Sized: Shoppers Flock to Discounters, But It Isn’t Always
Cheaper; The Cool Whip Conundrum,” Wall
Street Journal, August 14,
2002.
(13)
David E. Sprott, Kenneth C. Manning, and Anthony D.
Miyazaki, “Grocery Price Setting and Quantity Surcharges,” Journal of Marketing 67, no. 3 (2003):
34–45.
(14)
Ellen Garbarino and Sarah Maxwell, “Social Norms and
Judged Fairness as Mediators of Trust-Breaking Due to Dynamic Posted
Prices,” Proceedings, Fordham Pricing
Conference (New York, Fordham University,
2004).
(15)
“Broken Promises: When Your Program Changes the Rules,”
2005, www.insideflyer.com.
(16)
Fred M. Feinberg, Aradhna Krishna, and Z. John Zhang,
“Do We Care What Others Get? A Behaviorist Approach to Targeted
Promotions,” Journal of Marketing
Research 39, no. 3 (2002):
277–291.
(17)
Decision No. 587-C-A-2002, “In the Matter of a
Complaint Filed by Tom Sherlock against Air Canada,” October 30,
2002, www.cta-otc.gc.ca.
(18)
Paul Krugman, “What Price Fairness?” New York Times, October 4,
2000.
(19)
Sarah Maxwell, “Rule-Based Price Fairness and Its
Effect on Willingness to Purchase,” Journal
of Economic Psychology 23, no. 2 (2002):
191–212.
(20)
“What You Pay at Target, Wal-Mart May Depend on Where
You Live: Different Neighborhoods Have Different Prices,” November
30, 2005,
www.thedenverchanel.com.
(21)
Ibid.
(22)
Lan Xia, Kent B. Monroe, and Jennifer L. Cox, “The
Price Is Unfair! A Conceptual Framework of Price Fairness
Perceptions,” Journal of
Marketing 68 (October 2004):
1–15.
(23)
Lan Xia, Monika Kukar-Kinney, and Kent B. Monroe, “The
Effects of Promotion Restrictions on Perceptions of Promotion and
Price Fairness,” Proceedings, Fordham
Pricing Conference (New York, Fordham University,
2005).
(24)
Ramasastry, 2005.
(25)
Feinberg, Krishna, and Zhang,
2002.
(26)
“Getting Personal: Will Engaging in Dynamic Pricing
Help or Hurt Your Business?” Entrepreneur, October 2005,
www.allbusiness.com.
(27)
“How Technology Tailors Price Tags,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition),
June 21, 2001.
الفصل السادس عشر: التفاوض
(1)
Diana Wood, Medieval Economic
Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002).
(2)
Howard Raiffa, The Art and
Science of Negotiation: How to Resolve Conflicts and Get the
Best Out of Bargaining (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press,
1982).
(3)
M. H. Bazerman and J. Carroll, “Negotiator Cognition,”
in B. Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol 9,
(Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987): 247–288.
(4)
Otomar J. Bartos, “Simple Model of Negotiation: A
Sociological Point of View,” Journal of
Conflict Resolution 21, no. 4 (December 1977):
565–579.
(5)
George Loewenstein et al., “Biased Judgments of
Fairness in Bargaining,” The American
Economic Review 85, no. 5 (1993):
1337–1343.
(6)
Linda Loewenstein and George Loewenstein, “Explaining
Bargaining Impasses: The Role of Self-Serving Biases,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 11,
no. 1 (1997): 109–126.
(7)
Linda Babcock et al., “Biased Judgments of Fairness in
Bargaining,” American Economic
Review 85, no. 5 (1995):
1337–1343.
(8)
Ian Ayres, “Further Evidence of Discrimination in New
Car Negotiations and Estimates of Its Cause,” islandia.law.yale.edu/ayers/carint.htm.
(9)
Sarah Maxwell, “The Social Norms of Discrete Consumer
Exchange: Classification and Quantification,” American Journal of Economics and
Sociology 58, no. 4 (October 1999):
999–1018.
(10)
George F. Loewenstein, Leigh Thompson, and Max H.
Bazerman, “Social Utility and Decision Making in Interpersonal
Contexts,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 57, no. 3 (1989):
426–441.
(11)
Robyn Dawes and Richard Thaler, “Anomalies of
Cooperation,” Journal of Economic
Perspective 2, no. 3 (1988):
187–197.
(12)
A. C. Filley, Interpersonal
Conflict Resolution (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman,
1975); Dean G. Pruitt, Negotiation
Behavior (New York: Academic Press, 1981); Evert van
de Vliert, Theoretical Frontiers of Complex
Interpersonal Conflict Behavior (Hove, UK: Erlbaum,
Taylor, and Francis, 1996).
(13)
See, e.g., O. Ben-Yoav and D. G. Pruitt, “Resistance to
Yielding and the Expectation of Cooperative Future Interaction in
Negotiation,” Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology 20 (1984): 323–353.
(14)
Tom Tyler and Steven L. Blader, “Justice and
Negotiation,” in Michele J. Gelfand and Jeanne M. Brett (eds.),
The Handbook of Negotiation and
Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
2004): 295–312.
(15)
Aimee Drolet, Richard Larrick, and Michael W. Morris,
“Thinking of Others: How Perspective Taking Changes Negotiators’
Aspirations and Fairness Perceptions as a Function of Negotiator
Relationship,” Basic and Applied Social
Psychology 20, no. 1 (1998):
23–31.
(16)
Sarah Maxwell, Pete Nye, and Nicholas Maxwell, “Less
Pain, Same Gain: The Effects of Priming Fairness in Price
Negotiations,” Journal of Psychology and
Marketing 16, no. 7 (1999):
545–562.
(17)
Ibid.
(18)
Sarah Maxwell, Pete Nye, and Nicholas Maxwell, “The
Wrath of the Fairness-Primed Negotiator When the Reciprocity Norm Is
Violated,” Journal of Business
Research 56, no. 2 (2003):
399–409.
(19)
Dean G. Pruitt, Negotiation
Behavior (New York: Academic Press,
1981).
(20)
James K. Esser and S. S. Komorita, “Reciprocity and
Concession Making in Bargaining,” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 5 (1975):
864–872.
(21)
Linda D. Molm, Nobuyuki Takahashi, and Gretchen
Peterson, “In the Eye of the Beholder: Procedural Justice in Social
Exchange,” American Sociological
Review 68, no. 1 (2003):
128–152.
(22)
Randy Cohen, “Mea Culpa,” New
York Times Magazine, April 4, 2001:
6.
(23)
Pruitt, 1981.
(24)
Jeffry Rubin and Bert Brown, The Social Psychology of Bargaining and Negotiation
(New York: Academic Press, 1975).
(25)
Ibid.
(26)
Charles B. McClintock and William B. Liebrand, “The
Role of Interdependence Structure, Individual Value Orientation and
Other’s Strategy in Social Decision Making: A Transformational
Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 55, no. 3 (1988):
396–409.
(27)
See, e.g., Gary L. Frazier and Raymond C. Rody, “The
Use of Influence Strategies in Interfirm Relationships in Industrial
Product Channels,” Journal of
Marketing 55, no. 1 (1991):
52–69.
(28)
Maxwell, Nye, and Maxwell, 2003.
(29)
James J. White, “Machiavelli and the Bar: Ethical
Limitations on Lying in Negotiation,” American Bar Foundation Research Journal (1980):
926–938.
(30)
Eleanor H. Norton, “Bargaining and the Ethics of
Process,” What’s Fair: Ethics for
Negotiators (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004):
292.
(31)
Thomas Aquinas, Summa
Theologica, 2a2ae, Question 77, Article 3 (New York:
Benzinger Bros., 1947-48).
(32)
Pruitt, 1981.
(33)
William Ross and Jessica LaCroix, “Multiple Meanings of
Trust in Negotiation Theory and Research: A Literature Review and
Integrative Model,” International Journal of
Conflict Management 7, no. 4 (1996):
314–360.
(34)
Karen S. Cook et al., “The Distribution of Power in
Exchange Networks: Theory and Experimental Results,” American Journal of Sociology 89
(1983): 275–305.
(35)
Linda D. Molm, Theron M. Quist, and Phillip A. Wiseley,
“Reciprocal Justice and Strategies of Exchange,” Social Forces 72 (1993):
19–44.
(36)
Kenneth R. Evans and Richard F. Beltramini, “A
Theoretical Model of Consumer Negotiated Pricing: An Orientation
Perspective,” Journal of
Marketing 51 (April 1987):
58–73.
(37)
J. Eliashberg et al., “Assessing the Predictive
Accuracy of Two Utility-Based Theories in Marketing Channel
Negotiation Context,” Journal of Marketing
Research 23 (1986): 101–110.
(38)
Margaret Neale and Max Bazerman, Cognition and Rationality in
Negotiation (New York: Free Press, 1991):
156.
(39)
Matt Michel, June, 2001,
www.plumbers.org/pdl/opt.html quoted by Frank
Blau, “What Is a ‘Fair’ Price?” August 27, 2001,
www.pmmag.com.
الفصل السابع عشر: الضرائب
(1)
Robert Barra, Long Island State Assemblyman, AP release
(2006) www.weax.com.
(2)
Harris Interactive Online Survey, conducted for Tax
Foundation, March 8–16, 2006,
www.taxfoundation.org.
(3)
Charles Bennett, “Preliminary Results of the National
Research Program’s Reporting Compliance Study of Tax Year 2001
Individual Returns,” Internal Revenue Service
(2005).
(4)
James Alm and Benno Torgler, “Cultural Differences and Tax
Morale in the United States and in Europe,” Journal of Economic Psychology 27, no. 2 (2006):
224–246.
(5)
Benjamin Barber, interviewed by Gwen Ifill, The Newshour with Jim Lehrer, April 16,
2001, www.pbs.org/newshour/.
(6)
“Tax Quotes,” Internal Revenue Service,
www.irs.gov.
(7)
“ Taxpayer Attitude Survey,” IRS Oversight Board (2005),
www.irsoversightboard.treas.gov.
(8)
“A Barometer of Modern Morals,” Pew Research Center, March
28, 2006, pewresearch.org.
(9)
NBC News Poll, Blum & Weprin Associates, April 3–5,
2005, www.pollingreport.com.
(10)
James Alm, Gary H. McClelland, and William D. Schulze,
“Changing the Social Norm of Tax Compliance by Voting” (working paper
No. 98–17, Center for Economic
Analysis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 1998); Benno
Torgler, “Tax Morale, Rule-Governed Behaviour and Trust,” Constitutional Political Economy 14, no. 2
(2003): 119–140.
(11)
James Alm, Jorge Martinez-Vazquez, and Benno Torgler,
“Russian Attitudes Toward Paying Taxes—Before, During and After the
Transition,” (working paper no. 2005–27, Center for Research in
Economics, Management and the Arts, 2005): 18.
(12)
Stephen Coleman, “The Minnesota Income Tax Compliance
Experiment: State Tax Results,” Minnesota Department of Revenue (1996),
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(13)
Harris Interactive Online Survey, conducted for Tax
Foundation, March 8–16, 2006,
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(14)
“Fact Sheets: History of the U.S. Tax System,” United
States Department of the Treasury,
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(15)
Fox News/Opinion Dynamics Poll, March 29-30, 2005,
www.pollingreport.com.
(16)
Dru Sefton, “Enthusiasts Don’t Mind Having to Pay
Taxes,” New Orleans Times
Picayune, March 24, 2002,
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(17)
Tax Foundation, “Poll Shows Majority of U. S. Adults
Support Major Tax Reform, Willing to Give up Some Deductions to Make
Tax System Simpler,” April 5, 2006,
www.taxfoundation.org.
(18)
Gallup Poll, April 4–7, 2005,
www.pollingreport.com.
(19)
“Description and Analysis of Proposals to Replace the
Federal Income Tax,” Joint Committee on Taxation, JCS–18–95, June 5,
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(20)
“April’s Hard Truths,” The
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(21)
“Americans Feel They Pay Fair Share of Taxes, Says
Poll,” May 2, 2005, NewsTarget.com.
(22)
“Flat Tax,” RateEmpire.com.
(23)
“Estonian Economist and Former Chairman of the
Country’s Parliamentary Budget Committee in September 2005,”
www.zeit.de/2005/36/Osteuropa.
(24)
Professor Annette Nellen, San José State University,
www.cob.sjsu.edu/facstaff/.
(25)
Harris Interactive Online Survey,
2006.
(26)
“April’s Hard Truths,” 2006.
(27)
Rob Morgan, “High Cigarette Tax Would Pay in Several
Ways,” The State, April 16, 2006,
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(28)
Jonathan Tamari, “Cigarette Taxes May Go up Again,”
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(29)
Christian Wardlaw and Ingrid Loeffler Palmer,
“Calculating Luxury Taxes on Automobiles,” 2001,
Edmunds.com.
(30)
Bob Jamieson, “Why Is Gasoline So Expensive?” World News Tonight, April 15, 2006,
www.abcnews.go.com.
(31)
Andrew Bary, “Toll-Road Sales: Paying Up,” Barron’s, May 8, 2006:
17–20.
(32)
Harris Interactive Online Survey,
2006.
(33)
Chris Edwards, “Democrats’ Challenge on Tax
Complexity,” Washington Times,
July 23, 2004,
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(34)
Robert J. Samuelson, “The Guardians of Complexity,”
Newsweek, April 17, 2006:
47.
(35)
Executive Summary of President’ Advisory Panel of
Federal Tax Reform (2005): xiii.
(36)
Ibid.
(37)
James Alm and Benno Torgler, “Cultural Differences and
Tax Morale in the United States and in Europe,” Journal of Economic Psychology 27
(2006): 224–246.
(38)
NBC News Poll, 2005.
(39)
Benno Torgler, “Tax Morale in Latin America,” Public Choice 122, no. 1 (2005):
133–157.
(40)
Paul Webley et al., Tax
Evasion: An Experimental Approach (Cambridge:
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(41)
J. T. Scholz and M. Lubell, “Cooperation, Reciprocity
and the Collective Action Heuristic,” American Journal of Political Science 45 (2001):
160–178.
(42)
Edward L. Deci, Intrinsic
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(43)
Torgler, 2005.
(44)
Benno Torgler, “Cross-Cultural Comparison of Tax Morale
and Tax Compliance: Evidence from Costa Rica and Switzerland,”
International Journal of Comparative
Sociology 45, no. 17 (2004):
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(45)
Lars P. Feld and Benno Torgler, “Tax Morale after the
Reunification of Germany: Results from a Quasi-Natural Experiment,”
(working paper 210, University of California, Berkeley,
2007).
(46)
Ibid.
(47)
James Alm, Jorge Martinez-Vazquez, and Benno Torgler,
“Russian Attitudes Toward Paying Taxes-Before, During and After the
Transition,” (working paper no. 2005–27, Center for Research in
Economics, Management and the Arts, 2005).
(48)
Torgler, 2005.
(49)
Bo Rothstein, Social Traps and
the Problem of Trust (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2005).
(50)
Sefton, 2002.
(51)
M. Ray Perryman, “Paying Taxes Is as American as
Disliking Taxes,” San Antonio Business
Journal, May 3, 2002,
sanantonio.bizjournals.com.
الفصل الثامن عشر: الثقافة
(1)
J. Q. Wilson, The Moral
Sense (New York: Free Press,
1993).
(2)
Sarah Maxwell, “Social Norms of Consumer Pricing, Indian
Style,” Proceedings: International Society for
Marketing and Development (Legon, Ghana, 2000); Veronica
Feder Mayer and Marcos Goncalves Avila, “A Qualitative Investigation
about Community Standards of Fairness in the Brazilian Market:
Inferences, Emotions and Culture,” Proceedings:
Fordham Pricing Conference (New York: Fordham University,
2004); Sarah Maxwell et al., “Reactions to a Service Price Increase:
What Makes It Seem Fair,” Proceedings: Academy
of Marketing Science Cross Cultural Conference (Seoul,
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(3)
Harry C. Triandis, Individualism
& Collectivism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press,
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Geert Hofstede, Cultures and
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(5)
Mesquita Batja and Nico H. Frijda, “Cultural Variations
in Emotions: A Review,” Psychological
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(6)
K. Leung and M. H. Bond, “The Impact of Cultural
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(7)
K. Leung and E. A. Lind, “Procedural Justice and
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Ken-ichi Obuchi, Tomohiro Kumagai, and Emi Atsumi,
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Raymond R. Liu and Peter McClure, “Recognizing
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54–71.
(10)
Harry S. Watkins and Raymond Liu, “Collectivism,
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(11)
Marsha Richins and Bronislaw J. Verhage,
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(1985): 197–206.
(12)
Francis Fukuyama, Trust (New York: Simon and Schuster,
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(13)
Ibid.
(14)
Nancy R. Buchan, Rachel T. A. Croson and Eric J.
Johnson, “When Do Fair Beliefs Influence Bargaining Behavior?
Experimental Bargaining in Japan and the United States,” Journal of Consumer Research 31, no. 1
(2004): 181–190.
(15)
Michael Lynn, George M. Zinkhan, and Judy Harris,
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478–488.
(16)
Hofstede, 1997.
(17)
Bella Feygin, The Theory and
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Margaret Campbell, “Perceptions of Price Fairness:
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Jonathan Epstein, “Rising Credit Card Fees Are Costing
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(8)
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David Leonhardt, “Why Variable Pricing Fails at the
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(22)
David Leonhardt, “Changes Ahead for a Theater Near
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(23)
Thomas Mennecke, “iTunes Sticks with 99 Cent
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Judith A. Chevalier, Anil K. Kashyap, and Peter E.
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Anita Kunz, “Drug Prices: What’s Fair?” Business Week, December 10, 2001,
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Charles Smith, Auctions: The
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Jefferson Graham, “Ticketmaster Uses Auctions to Fight
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Smith, 1989.
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Douglas Frantz, Carol Vogel, and Ralph Blumenthal,
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Lee Rosenbaum, “A Touch of Class-Action,” Wall Street Journal, February 15,
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Peter R. Dickson and Rosemary Kalapurakal, “The Use and
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Arik Johnson, “Tying Arrangements: Illegal Tying Is One
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“Light Up: Why Airlines Have Started Charging for
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(38)
Dan Milmo, “BA Says It Will Charge £120 for Excess
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Ronald Alsop, “How Boss’s Deeds Buff a Firm’s
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(40)
Tamara Kaplan, “The Tylenol Crisis,”
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(41)
Alsop, 2007.
(42)
Campbell, 1999.
(43)
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(44)
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