المراجع والقراءات الإضافية
In addition to the giants on whose shoulders I have stood for more than
30 years and who are recognized in the text and bibliography that follows, I should
like to thank the many archivists and librarians in the United States, Australia,
and the United Kingdom who are all too often taken for granted. I should also like
to thank my former students Jason Flanagan and Jacqui Bird for their thoughtful
analyses of the career of J. Robert Oppenheimer and the role of atomic scientists
in
the making of nuclear weapons, respectively. Needless to say, there is a vast
literature on various aspects of the politics of nuclear weaponry and the problems
and prospects of dealing with nuclear weapons. The publications listed below
represent the tip of that iceberg and include the most important studies in English.
Constraints of space have made it necessary to omit many excellent and important
works in the field.
الفصل الأول
The best place to begin the study of nuclear weapons is the pages of
the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, founded in
1945 as a newsletter distributed among nuclear physicists concerned by the
possibility of nuclear war; for 60 years the Bulletin’s Doomsday Clock has followed the rise and fall of
nuclear tensions. For a discussion of the far-reaching effects of nuclear
weapons, including the mass fire caused by firestorms, see Lynn Eden, Whole World on Fire: Organizations, Knowledge, and Nuclear
Weapons Devastation (Cornell University Press, 2004). The best
introduction to the threat posed by nuclear terrorists is Graham Allison,
Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable
Catastrophe (Times Books, 2004); also useful are Scott D. Sagan
and Kenneth N. Waltz, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A
Debate Renewed (W. W. Norton, 2003) and Joseph Cirincione, Jon
Wolfstahl, and Miriam Rajkumar, Deadly Arsenals:
Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Threats (Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 2005).
الفصل الثاني
The Einstein letter together with FDR’s reply is found in Vincent C.
Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic
Bomb (US Government Printing Office, 1985). A good introduction
to the Einstein story, taking into account all the latest discoveries of letters
and organized in a conventional chronological format, is Walter Isaacson,
Einstein: His Life and Universe (Simon
and Schuster, 2007). For details on the German research effort, see Richard
Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon
and Schuster, 1986); McGeorge Bundy, Danger and
Survival: Choices about the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (Random
House, 1988); Mark Walker, German National Socialism and
the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949 (Cambridge University
Press, 1989); and Jeffey T. Richelson, Spying on the
Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North
Korea (Norton, 2006). The best introduction to the making of the
atomic bomb is still Henry D. Smyth, A General Account
of the Development of Methods of Using Atomic Energy for Military Purposes
under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945 (US
Government Printing Office, 1945).
For the role of the atomic scientists, see Robert Jungk, Brighter Than a Thousand Suns: The Moral and Political History
of the Atomic Scientists (Victor Gollancz, 1958); Robert Gilpin,
American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons
Policy (Princeton University Press, 1962); and Gregg Herken,
Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and
Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, Edward Teller
(Henry Holt, 2002). Also see Jacqueline Bird’s related essay in The Politics of Nuclear Weaponry, ed. Richard Dean
Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa (Regina Books, 2007).
The ‘atomic diplomacy’ debate may be followed in Gar Alperovitz,
The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb and the
Architecture of an American Debate (Harper Collins, 1995); Robert
James Maddox, Weapons for Victory: The Hiroshima
Decision Fifty Years Later (University of Missouri Press, 1995);
and, most recently, Wilson D. Miscamble, From Roosevelt
to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War (Cambridge
University Press, 2007). For a useful distillation of the vast literature on
this subject, see J. Samuel Walker, Prompt and Utter
Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs against Japan
(University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
For the impact of wartime bombing of civilians, see Jorg Friedich,
Fire: The Bombing of Germany, 1940–45
(Columbia University Press, 2007), and the incomparable John Hersey, Hiroshima (Penguin, 1946). The George Orwell quote
is found in Orwell in Tribune: ‘As I Please’ and Other
Writings, 1943–7, compiled and edited by Paul Anderson
(Politioco’s, 2007).
الفصل الثالث
The Baruch Plan and the Gromyko proposal are found in Joseph M.
Siracusa, The American Diplomatic Revolution:
A Documentary History of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1976). For a detailed treatment of the Baruch Plan, which contains
a fair amount of primary source material, see Leneice N. Wu’s essay in Richard
Dean Burns (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Arms Control and
Disarmament (3 vols, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993), and Richard
G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr, A History of the
United States Atomic Energy Commission, vol. 1, The New World,
1939/1946 (University of Pennsylvania, 1962).
The best historical assessments include Barton J. Bernstein, ‘The
Quest for Security: American Foreign Policy and International Control of Atomic
Energy’, Journal of American History 60
(March 1974), 1003–44; and Larry Gerber, ‘The Baruch Plan and the Origins of the
Cold War’, Diplomatic History 6 (Winter
1982), 69–95. The Bush quote is found in the introduction of Thomas C. Reed’s At
the Abyss: An Insider’s History of the Cold
War (Ballantine Books, 2004).
الفصل الرابع
Portions of this chapter have been adapted from my recent study, with
David G. Coleman, Real-World Nuclear Deterrence: The
Making of International Strategy (Praeger Security International,
2006). The famous NSC 68 document is found in Joseph M. Siracusa, Into the Dark House: American Diplomacy and the Ideological
Origins of the Cold War (Regina Books, 1998).
For the historical context of these years, see Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the
Dawn of the Atomic Age (North Carolina Press, 1994); Michael
Mandelbaum, The Nuclear Revolution: International
Politics before and after Hiroshima (Cambridge University Press,
1981); and Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S.
Truman and the Origins of the National Security States, 1945–1954
(Cambridge University Press, 1998).
Also useful are Gregg Herken, The Winning
Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War, 1945–1950 (Knopf, 1980);
Margaret Gowing, Independence and Deterrence: Britain
and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952 (Macmillan, 1974); and John Lewis
Gaddis et al. (eds) Cold War Statesmen Confront the
Bomb (Oxford University Press, 1999).
The Soviet side of this story is told ably in David Holloway,
Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic
Energy, 1939–1956 (Yale University Press, 1994); and Vojtech
Mastny, The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin
Years (Oxford University Press, 1996).
The growth of the global anti-nuclear campaign, together with the
forces, personalities, and events that moulded it, is told in Lawrence S.
Wittner’s incomparable multi-volume study, The Struggle
against the Bomb (Stanford University Press,
1993).
الفصل الخامس
Indispensable are three works by Raymond L. Garthoff: Deterrence and the Revolution in Soviet Military
Doctrine (Brookings Institution, 1990), Soviet Strategy in the Nuclear Age (rev. edn, Praeger, 1962),
and Détente and Confrontation: American Soviet Relations
from Nixon to Reagan (Brookings Institution, 1985). In this same
category I also include Lawrence Freedman’s The
Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, 3rd edn (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003)
and Deterrence (Polity,
2004).
Still useful on nuclear doctrine are Thomas C. Schelling, Arms and Influence (Yale University Press, 1966),
and Glenn H. Snyder, Deterrence and Defence
(Princeton University Press, 1961).
Of the several accounts of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Graham Allison
and Philip Zelikow’s Essence of Decision: Explaining the
Cuban Missile Crisis, 2nd edn (Longman, 1999) is the standard
account. Alexandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, ‘One
Hell of a Gamble’: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964, Secret History
of the Cuban Missile Crisis (W. W. Norton, 1997), had
unprecedented access to the former Soviet archives, while Ernest R. May and
Philip Zelikow, The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White
House during the Cuban Missile Crisis (Belknap Press, 1997),
provides transcripts of most of the audio recordings JFK secretly made during
the episode.
The treaty milestones of these years are covered in Joseph M.
Siracusa and David G. Coleman, Depression to Cold War: A
History of America from Herbert Hoover to Ronald Reagan (Praeger,
2002), and Richard Dean Burns (ed.), Encyclopaedia of
Arms Control and Disarmament (3 vols, Charles Scribner’s sons,
1993).
Arms control efforts to limit the potential threat of strategic
weaponry may be found in McGeorge Bundy, Danger and
Survival; J. P. G. Freeman, Britain’s
Nuclear Arms Control Policy in the Context of Anglo-American Relations,
1957–68 (St Martin’s Press, 1986); Martin Goldstein, Arms Control and Military Preparedness from Truman to
Bush (Peter Lang, 1993); and Robin Ranger, Arms and Politics, 1958–1978: Arms Control in a Changing
Political Context (Gage, 1979). Kennedy’s creation of the Arms
Control and Disarmament Agency is described by Duncan L. Clarke, Politics of Arms Control: The Role and Effectiveness of the
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (Free Press,
1979).
The debate over nuclear testing and negotiation of the limited test
ban treaty are detailed in Robert Divine, Blowing on the
Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954–1960 (Oxford University
Press, 1978); Glenn Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the
Test Ban (University of California Press, 1981); Kendrick Oliver,
Kennedy, Macmillan, and the Nuclear Test-Ban
Treaty (St Martin’s Press, 1998); and William R. Cleave and S. T.
Cohen, Nuclear Weapons, Policies, and the Test Ban
Issues (Praeger, 1987).
For the Reagan years and arms control, see Strobe Talbott, Deadly Gambits: The Reagan Administration and the Stalemate in
Nuclear Arms Control (Knopf, 1984); Kenneth L. Adelman, The Great Universal Embrace: Arms Summitry, a Skeptic’s
Account (Simon and Schuster, 1989); and
Keith L. Shimko, Images and Arms Control: Perceptions of the Soviet Union in
the Reagan Administration (University of Michigan Press,
1991).
Also useful are Alexander L. George and Richard Smoke, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy: Theory and
Practice (Columbia University Press, 1974); Fred Kaplan,
The Wizards of Armageddon (Simon and
Schuster, 1983); and Marc Trachtenberg, History and
Strategy (Princeton University Press, 1991).
الفصل السادس
Overviews include Richard Dean Burns and Lester H. Brune, The Quest for Missile Defenses, 1944–2003 (Regina
Books, 2004); Ashton B. Carter and David N. Schwartz (eds), Ballistic Missile Defense (Brookings Institution,
1984); and David B. H. Denoon, Ballistic Missile Defense
in the Post-Cold War Era (Westview, 1995). For Soviet/Russian
developments, see Pavel Podvig (ed.), Russian Strategic
Nuclear Forces (MIT Press, 2001) and Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s
Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002).
The 1968 debates over deployment are covered in Edward R. Jayne,
The ABM Debate: Strategic Defense and National
Security (Center for Strategic Studies, 1969); Abram Chayes and
Jerome Wiesner (eds), ABM: An Evaluation
of the Decision to Deploy an
Antiballistic Missile System (Harper and Row, 1969); and Ernest
J. Yanarella, The Missile Defense Controversy: Strategy,
Technology, and Politics, 1955–1972 (University Press of
Kentucky, 1977).
For the Reagan administration’s efforts to reinterpret the ABM
treaty, see Raymond L. Garthoff, Policy Versus the Law:
The Reinterpretation of the ABM Treaty (Brookings Institution
Press, 1987). For Reagan’s initiative, consult William L. Broad, Teller’s War: The Top Secret Story Behind the Star Wars’
Deception (Simon and Schuster, 1992) and Frances Fitzgerald,
Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the
End of the Cold War (Simon and Schuster, 2000).
الفصل السابع
In addition to the works noted in Chapter 1, see
Stephen J. Cimbala, Nuclear Strategy in the Twenty-First Century
(Praeger, 2000).
The importance of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty is discussed
in Ted Greenwood, Harold A. Feiveson, and Theodore A. Taylor, Nuclear Proliferation: Motivations, Capabilities and
Strategies for Control (McGraw-Hill, 1977); Michael P. Fry,
Patrick Keatinge, and Joseph Rotblat (eds), Nuclear
Non-Proliferation and the Non-Proliferation Treaty
(Springer-Verlag, 1990); David Fischer, Stopping the
Spread of Nuclear Weapons: The Past and the Prospects (Taylor and
Francis, 1992); and T. V. Paul, Power Versus Prudence:
Why Nations Forgo Nuclear Weapons (McGill-Queens University
Press, 2000).
For the rise and fall of Dr A. Q. Khan and his nuclear black market,
see William Langewiesche, The Atomic Bazaar: The Rise of
the Nuclear Poor (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007) and Nuclear Black Markets: Pakistan, A. Q. Khan and the Rise of
Proliferation Networks (International Institute for Strategic
Studies, London, 2007).
Recent studies of how not to deal with North Korea are Marion V.
Creekmore, Jr, A Moment of Crisis: Jimmy Carter, the
Power of a Peacemaker, and North Korea’s Nuclear Ambitions
(Public Affairs, 2007); Gordon D. Chang, Nuclear
Showdown: North Korea Takes on the World (Random House, 2007);
and Jasper Becker, Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the
Looming Threat of North Korea (Oxford University Press,
2007).
For the problems and prospects of the proliferation of nuclear
weapons states in South Asia, see Devin T. Hagerty, The
Consequences of Nuclear Proliferation: Lessons from South Asia
(MIT Press, 1998); George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear
Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (University of
California Press, 1999); and K. K. Pathak, Nuclear
Policy of India: A Third World Perspective (Gitanjali Prakashan,
1980).
For an account of nuclear ‘know-how’ gone astray, consult John
McPhee, The Curve of Binding Energy (Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 1974). And to understand how easy it would be
for a terrorist organization to
assemble an atomic bomb, see Peter D. Zimmerman and Jeffrey G. Lewis, ‘The Bomb
in the Backyard’, Foreign Policy
(November–December 2006), 33–9.
