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(1)
Epigraph: Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants (Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions, 2013), 9.
The discussion here focuses on plants that reproduce via seeds. However, some plants, for example, ferns and some mosses, reproduce via spores, whereas others reproduce asexually or clonally through vegetative regeneration from stems, rhizomes (underground stems), bulbs, or tubers; Simon Lei, “Benefits and Costs of Vegetative and Sexual Reproduction in Perennial Plants: A Review of Literature,” Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science 42 (2010): 9–14.
(2)
James H. Wandersee and Elisabeth E. Schussler, “Preventing Plant Blindness,” American Biology Teacher 61, no. 2 (1999): 82–86; James H. Wandersee and Elisabeth E. Schussler, “Toward a Theory of Plant Blindness,” Plant Science Bulletin 17 (2001): 2–9.
(3)
Sami Schalk, “Metaphorically Speaking: Ableist Metaphors in Feminist Writing,” Disability Studies Quarterly 33, no. 4 (2013): 3874.
(4)
Mung Balding and Kathryn J. H. Williams, “Plant Blindness and the Implications for Plant Conservation,” Conservation Biology 30 (2016): 1192.
(5)
Balding and Williams, “Plant Blindness”; Caitlin McDonough MacKenzie, Sara Kuebbing, Rebecca S. Barak, et al., “We Do Not Want to ‘Cure Plant Blindness’ We Want to Grow Plant Love,” Plants, People, Planet 1, no. 3 (2019): 139–141. Balding and Williams describe “plant blindness” as a “bias” against plants. Their discussion inspired my use of the term “plant bias,” as well as my suggestion that decreasing plant bias should lead to increased plant awareness.
(6)
This bending phenomenon, known as phototropism, was noted in Darwin’s treatise on plants: Charles Darwin, The Power of Movement in Plants (London: John Murray, 1880), 449. It is controlled by the hormone auxin and has been studied experimentally for a long time, including relatively early work by Briggs and colleagues: Winslow R. Briggs, Richard D. Tocher, and James F. Wilson, “Phototropic Auxin Redistribution in Corn Coleoptiles,” Science 126, no. 3266 (1957): 210–212.
(7)
Edward J. Primka and William K. Smith, “Synchrony in Fall Leaf Drop: Chlorophyll Degradation, Color Change, and Abscission Layer Formation in Three Temperate Deciduous Tree Species,” American Journal of Botany 106, no. 3 (2019): 377–388.
(8)
Fernando Valladares, Ernesto Gianoli, and José M. Gómez, “Ecological Limits to Plant Phenotypic Plasticity,” New Phytologist 176 (2007): 749–763.
(9)
The process by which environmental signals are perceived by sensors within cells and communicated internally is called signal transduction; see Abdul Razaque Memon and Camil Durakovic, “Signal Perception and Transduction in Plants,” Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences 2, no. 2 (2014): 15–29; Harry B. Smith, “Constructing Signal Transduction Pathways in Arabidopsis,” Plant Cell 11 (1999): 299–301.
(10)
Sean S. Duffey and Michael J. Stout, “Antinutritive and Toxic Components of Plant Defense against Insects,” Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 32 (1996): 3–37.
(11)
David C. Baulcombe and Caroline Dean, “Epigenetic Regulation in Plant Responses to the Environment,” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6 (2014): a019471; Paul F. Gugger, Sorel Fitz-Gibbon, Matteo Pellegrini, and Victoria L. Sork, “Species-wide Patterns of DNA Methylation Variation in Quercus lobata and Their Association with Climate Gradients,” Molecular Ecology 25, no. 8 (2016): 1665–1680; Sonia E. Sultan, “Developmental Plasticity: Re-conceiving the Genotype,” Interface Focus 7, no. 5 (2017): 20170009.
(12)
Sun-tracking plants are thought to rotate their leaves and flowers to follow the sun in order to maximize exposure to sunlight or to promote pollinator visits. See M. P. M. Dicker, J. M. Rossiter, I. P. Bond, and P. M. Weaver, “Biomimetic Photo-actuation: Sensing, Control and Actuation in Sun Tracking Plants,” Bioinspiration & Biomimetics 9 (2014): 036015; Hagop S. Atamian, Nicky M. Creux, Evan A. Brown, et al., “Circadian Regulation of Sunflower Heliotropism, Floral Orientation, and Pollinator Visits,” Science 353, no. 6299 (2016): 587–590; Joshua P. Vandenbrink, Evan A. Brown, Stacey L. Harmer, and Benjamin K. Blackman, “Turning Heads: The Biology of Solar Tracking in Sunflower,” Plant Science 224 (2014): 20–26.
(13)
Angela Hodge, “Root Decisions,” Plant, Cell & Environment 32, no. 6 (2009): 628–640; Efrat Dener, Alex Kacelnik, and Hagai Shemesh, “Pea Plants Show Risk Sensitivity,” Current Biology 26, no. 12 (2016): 1–5.
(14)
Jason D. Fridley, “Plant Energetics and the Synthesis of Population and Ecosystem Ecology,” Journal of Ecology 105 (2017): 95–110.
(15)
Monica Gagliano, Michael Renton, Martial Depczynski, and Stefano Mancuso, “Experience Teaches Plants to Learn Faster and Forget Slower in Environments Where It Matters,” Oecologia 175, no. 1 (2014): 63–72; Monica Gagliano, Charles I. Abramson, and Martial Depczynski, “Plants Learn and Remember: Lets Get Used to It,” Oecologia 186, no. 1 (2018): 29–31.
(16)
Michael Marder, “Plant Intentionality and the Phenomenological Framework of Plant Intelligence,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 7, no. 11 (2012): 1365–1372.
(17)
Marder, “Plant Intentionality.”
(18)
For supporters of this view, see Stefano Mancuso and Alessandra Viola, Brilliant Green: The Surprising History and Science of Plant Intelligence (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2015); Paco Calvo, Monica Gagliano, Gustavo M. Souza, and Anthony Trewavas, “Plants Are Intelligent, Here’s How,” Annals of Botany 125, no. 1 (2020): 11–28. For detractors, see Richard Firn, “Plant Intelligence: An Alternative Point of View,” Annals of Botany 93, no.4 (2004): 345–351; Daniel Kolitz, “Are Plants Conscious?” Gizmodo, May 28, 2018, https://gizmodo.com/areplants-conscious-1826365668; Denyse O’Leary, “Scientists: Plants Are NOT Conscious!” Mind Matters, July 8, 2019, https://mindmatters.ai/2019/07/scientists-plants-are-not-conscious/. For agnostics, see Daniel A. Chamowitz, “Plants Are Intelligent—Now What,” Nature Plants 4 (2018): 622-623. For an overview of the debate, see Ephrat Livni, “A Debate over Plant Consciousness Is Forcing Us to Confront the Limitations of the Human Mind,” Quartz, June 3, 2018, https://qz.com/1294941/a-debate-over-plant-consciousness-isforcing-us-to-confront-the-limitations-of-the-human-mind/.
(19)
Irwin N. Forseth, and Anne F. Innis, “Kudzu (Pueraria montana): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat,” Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 23, no. 5 (2004): 401–413.

الفصل الأول: بيئة متغيرة

(1)
Epigraph: Barbara McClintock, quoted in Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1983), 199-200.
Tomoko Shinomura, “Phytochrome Regulation of Seed Germination,” Journal of Plant Research 110 (1997): 151–161.
(2)
Ludwik W. Bielczynski, Gert Schansker, and Roberta Croce, “Effect of Light Acclimation on the Organization of Photosystem II Super- and Sub-Complexes in Arabidopsis thaliana,” Frontiers in Plant Science 7 (2016): 105; N. Friedland, S. Negi, T. Vinogradova-Shah, et al., “Fine-tuning the Photosynthetic Light Harvesting Apparatus for Improved Photosynthetic Efficiency and Biomass Yield,” Scientific Reports 9 (2019): 13028; Norman P. A. Huner, Gunnar Öquist, and Anastasios Melis, “Photostasis in Plants, Green Algae and Cyanobacteria: The Role of Light Harvesting Antenna Complexes,” in Light-Harvesting Antennas in Photosynthesis, ed. Beverley Green and William W. Parson (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2003), 401–421; Beronda L. Montgomery, “Seeing New Light: Recent Insights into the Occurrence and Regulation of Chromatic Acclimation in Cyanobacteria,” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 37 (2017): 18–23.
(3)
Tegan Armarego-Marriott, Omar Sandoval Ibañez, and Łucja Kowalewska, “Beyond the Darkness: Recent Lessons from Etiolation and De-etiolation Studies,” Journal of Experimental Botany 71, no 4 (2020): 1215–1225.
(4)
Beronda L. Montgomery, “Spatiotemporal Phytochrome Signaling during Photomorphogenesis: From Physiology to Molecular Mechanisms and Back,” Frontiers in Plant Science 7 (2016): 480; Sookyung Oh, Sankalpi N. Warnasooriya, and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Downstream Effectors of Light—and Phytochrome—Dependent Regulation of Hypocotyl Elongation in Arabidopsis thaliana,” Plant Molecular Biology 81, no. 6 (2013): 627–640; Sankalpi N. Warnasooriya and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Spatial-Specific Regulation of Root Development by Phytochromes in Arabidopsis thaliana,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 6, no. 12 (2011): 2047–2050.
(5)
Oh et al., “Downstream Effectors”; Warnasooriya and Montgomery, “Spatial-Specific Regulation.”
(6)
Ariel Novoplansky, “Developmental Plasticity in Plants: Implications of Non-Cognitive Behavior,” Evolutionary Ecology 16, no. 3 (2002): 177–188, 183; Christine M. Palmer, Susan M. Bush, and Julin N. Maloof, “Phenotypic and Developmental Plasticity in Plants,” eLS, Wiley Online Library, posted June 15, 2012, doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0002092.pub2.
(7)
Montgomery, “Spatiotemporal Phytochrome Signaling.”
(8)
Novoplansky, “Developmental Plasticity in Plants”; Stephen C. Stearns, “The Evolutionary Significance of Phenotypic Plasticity: Phenotypic Sources of Variation among Organisms Can Be Described by Developmental Switches and Reaction Norms,” BioScience 39, no. 7 (1989): 436–445; Palmer et al., “Phenotypic and Developmental Plasticity in Plants.”
(9)
Novoplansky, “Developmental Plasticity in Plants,” 179-180.
(10)
There are, however, limits to the ability to modulate yield and seed set under prolonged stress. M. W. Adams, “Basis of Yield Component Compensation in Crop Plants with Special Reference to the Field Bean, Phaseolus vulgaris,” Crop Science 7, no. 5 (1967): 505–510.
(11)
Maaike De Jong and Ottoline Leyser, “Developmental Plasticity in Plants,” in Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, vol. 77 (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2012), 63–73; Stearns, “The Evolutionary Significance of Phenotypic Plasticity.”
(12)
Kerry L. Metlen, Erik T. Aschehoug, and Ragan M. Callaway, “Plant Behavioural Ecology: Dynamic Plasticity in Secondary Metabolites,” Plant, Cell & Environment 32 (2009): 641–653.
(13)
Tânia Sousa, Tiago Domingos, J.-C. Poggiale, and S. A. L. M. Kooijman, “Dynamic Energy Budget Theory Restores Coherence in Biology,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365, no. 1557 (2010): 3413–3428.
(14)
Fritz Geiser, “Conserving Energy during Hibernation,” Journal of Experimental Biology 219 (2016): 2086-2087.
(15)
The ability of plants to change form throughout their life cycle is the observable growth response that is most distinct from mammals, including humans. Ottoline Leyser, “The Control of Shoot Branching: An Example of Plant Information Processing,” Plant, Cell & Environment, 32, no. 6 (2009): 694–703; Metlen et al., “Plant Behavioural Ecology”; Anthony Trewavas, “What Is Plant Behaviour?” Plant, Cell & Environment 32 (2009): 606–616.
(16)
Carl D. Schlichting, “The Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity in Plants,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 17, no. 1 (1986): 667–693; Fernando Valladares, Ernesto Gianoli, and José M. Gómez, “Ecological Limits to Plant Phenotypic Plasticity,” New Phytologist 176 (2007): 749–763.
(17)
The movement of petioles to reposition leaves upward is known as hyponasty, whereas downward movement of leaves is called epinasty; these process are regulated by plant hormones such as ethylene and auxin; Jae Young Kim, Young-Joon Park, June-Hee Lee, and Chung-Mo Park, “Developmental Polarity Shapes Thermo-Induced Nastic Movements in Plants,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 14, no. 8 (2019): 1617609.
(18)
Sarah Courbier, and Ronald Pierik, “Canopy Light Quality Modulates Stress Responses in Plants,” iScience 22 (2019): 441–452; Diederik H. Keuskamp, Rashmi Sasidharan, and Ronald Pierik, “Physiological Regulation and Functional Significance of Shade Avoidance Responses to Neighbors,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 5, no. 6 (2010): 655662; Hans de Kroon, Eric J. W. Visser, Heidrun Huber, et al., “A Modular Concept of Plant Foraging Behaviour: The Interplay between Local Responses and Systemic Control,” Plant, Cell & Environment 32, no. 6 (2009): 704–712.
(19)
Light-dependent hyponasty, similar to temperature-dependent hyponasty, is driven by changes in cellular turgor pressure or differential growth on one surface of a plant organ, in this case mediated by hormones including ethylene (especially for petioles) and auxin; Joanna K. Polko, Laurentius A. C. J. Voesenek, Anton J. M. Peeters, and Ronald Pierik, “Petiole Hyponasty: An Ethylene-Driven, Adaptive Response to Changes in the Environment,” AoB Plants 2011 (2011): plr031.
(20)
The suppression of lateral branch initiation and growth in the presence of the main or dominant branch is known as apical dominance, which is a hormone-regulated process in plants; Leyser, “The Control of Shoot Branching,” 695; Francois F. Barbier, Elizabeth A. Dun, and Christine A. Beveridge, “Apical Dominance,” Current Biology 27 (2017): R864–R865.
(21)
David C. Baulcombe and Caroline Dean, “Epigenetic Regulation in Plant Responses to the Environment,” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6 (2014): a019471; Sonia E. Sultan, “Developmental Plasticity: Re-Conceiving the Genotype,” Interface Focus 7, no. 5 (2017): 20170009.
(22)
Paul F. Gugger, Sorel Fitz-Gibbon, Matteo Pellegrini, and Victoria L. Sork, “Species-Wide Patterns of DNA Methylation Variation in Quercus lobata and Their Association with Climate Gradients,” Molecular Ecology 25, no. 8 (2016): 1665–1680.
(23)
Quinn M. Sorenson and Ellen I. Damschen, “The Mechanisms Affecting Seedling Establishment in Restored Savanna Understories Are Seasonally Dependent,” Journal of Applied Ecology 56, no. 5 (2019): 1140–1151.
(24)
Angela Hodge, “Plastic Plants and Patchy Soils,” Journal of Experimental Botany 57, no. 2 (2006): 401–411.
(25)
Angela Hodge, David Robinson, and Alastair Fitter, “Are Microorganisms More Effective than Plants at Competing for Nitrogen?” Trends in Plant Science 5, no. 7 (2000): 304–308; Ronald Pierik, Liesje Mommer, and Laurentius A. C. J. Voesenek, “Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Competition: Neighbour Detection and Response Strategies,” Functional Ecology 27, no. 4 (2013): 841–853.
(26)
Sultan, “Developmental Plasticity,” 3; Brian G. Forde and Pia Walch-Liu, “Nitrate and Glutamate as Environmental Cues for Behavioural Responses in Plant Roots,” Plant, Cell & Environment, 32, no. 6 (2009): 682–693.
(27)
Hagai Shemesh, Ran Rosen, Gil Eshel, Ariel Novoplansky, and Ofer Ovadia, “The Effect of Steepness of Temporal Resource Gradients on Spatial Root Allocation,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 6, no. 9 (2011): 1356–1360.
(28)
Jocelyn E. Malamy and Katherine S. Ryan, “Environmental Regulation of Lateral Root Initiation in Arabidopsis,” Plant Physiology 127, no. 3 (2001): 899; Hidehiro Fukaki, and Masao Tasaka, “Hormone Interactions during Lateral Root Formation,” Plant Molecular Biology 69, no. 4 (2009): 437–449.
(29)
Xucan Jia, Peng Liu, and Jonathan P. Lynch, “Greater Lateral Root Branching Density in Maize Improves Phosphorus Acquisition for Low Phosphorus Soil,” Journal of Experimental Botany 69, no. 20 (2018): 4961–4970; Angela Hodge, “Root Decisions,” Plant, Cell & Environment 32 (2009): 628–640; Angela Hodge, “The Plastic Plant: Root Responses to Heterogeneous Supplies of Nutrients,” New Phytologist 162 (2004): 9–24.
(30)
Xue-Yan Liu, Keisuke Koba, Akiko Makabe, and Cong-Qiang Liu, “Nitrate Dynamics in Natural Plants: Insights Based on the Concentration and Natural Isotope Abundances of Tissue Nitrate,” Frontiers in Plant Science 5 (2014): 355; Leyser, “The Control of Shoot Branching,” 699.
(31)
Hagai Shemesh, Adi Arbiv, Mordechai Gersani, Ofer Ovadia, and Ariel Novoplansky, “The Effects of Nutrient Dynamics on Root Patch Choice,” PLoS One 5, no. 5 (2010): e10824; M. Gersani, Z. Abramsky, and O. Falik, “Density-Dependent Habitat Selection in Plants,” Evolutionary Ecology 12, no. 2 (1998): 223-234; Jia, Liu, and Lynch, “Greater Lateral Root Branching Density in Maize.”
(32)
Beronda L. Montgomery, “Processing and Proceeding,” Beronda L. Montgomery website, May 3, 2020, http://www.berondamontgomery.com/writing/processing-and-proceeding/.

الفصل الثاني: صديقٌ أم عدوٌّ

(1)
Epigraph: Masaru Emoto, The Hidden Messages in Water, trans. David A. Thayne (Hillsboro, OR: Beyond Words Publishing, 2004), 46.
Patricia Hornitschek, Séverine Lorrain, Vincent Zoete, et al., “Inhibition of the Shade Avoidance Response by Formation of Non-DNA Binding bHLH Heterodimers,” EMBO Journal 28, no. 24 (2009): 3893–3902; Ronald Pierik, Liesje Mommer, and Laurentius A. C. J. Voesenek, “Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Competition: Neighbour Detection and Response Strategies,” Functional Ecology 27, no. 4 (2013): 841–853; Céline Sorin, Mercè Salla-Martret, Jordi Bou-Torrent, et al., “ATHB4, a Regulator of Shade Avoidance, Modulates Hormone Response in Arabidopsis Seedlings,” Plant Journal 59, no. 2 (2009): 266–277.
(2)
Adrian G. Dyer, “The Mysterious Cognitive Abilities of Bees: Why Models of Visual Processing Need to Consider Experience and Individual Differences in Animal Performance Journal of Experimental Biology 215, no. 3 (2012): 387–395.
(3)
Richard Karban and John L. Orrock, “A Judgment and Decision-Making Model for Plant Behavior,” Ecology, 99, no. 9 (2018): 1909–1919; Dimitrios Michmizos and Zoe Hilioti, “A Roadmap towards a Functional Paradigm for Learning and Memory in Plants,” Journal of Plant Physiology 232 (2019): 209–215.
(4)
Mieke de Wit, Wouter Kegge, Jochem B. Evers, et al., “Plant Neighbor Detection through Touching Leaf Tips Precedes Phytochrome Signals,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, no. 36 (2012): 14705–14710.
(5)
Monica Gagliano, “Seeing Green: The Re-discovery of Plants and Nature’s Wisdom,” Societies 3, no. 1 (2013): 147–157.
(6)
Richard Karban and Kaori Shiojiri, “Self-Recognition Affects Plant Communication and Defense,” Ecology Letters 12, no. 6 (2009): 502–506; Richard Karban, Kaori Shiojiri, Satomi Ishizaki, et al., “Kin Recognition Affects Plant Communication and Defence,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280 (2013): 20123062.
(7)
Amitabha Das, Sook-Hee Lee, Tae Kyung Hyun, et al., “Plant Volatiles as Method of Communication,” Plant Biotechnology Reports 7, no. 1 (2013): 9–26.
(8)
Donald F. Cipollini and Jack C. Schultz, “Exploring Cost Constraints on Stem Elongation in Plants Using Phenotypic Manipulation,” American Naturalist 153, no. 2 (1999): 236–242.
(9)
Jonathan P. Lynch, “Root Phenes for Enhanced Soil Exploration and Phosphorus Acquisition: Tools for Future Crops,” Plant Physiology 156, no. 3 (2011): 1041–1049.
(10)
Ariel Novoplansky, “Picking Battles Wisely: Plant Behaviour under Competition,” Plant, Cell and Environment 32, no. 6 (2009): 726–741.
(11)
Michal Gruntman, Dorothee Groß, Maria Májeková, and Katja Tielbörger, “Decision-Making in Plants under Competition,” Nature Communications 8 (2017): 2235.
(12)
Changes in energy distribution that occur when a plant is shaded involve a number of hormones, including auxins, which contribute to differential growth, and cytokinins, which arrest leaf development to free up energy resources for growth of stems and petioles. Ethylene and brassinosteroids promote petiole elongation under shade in some plants, whereas abscissic acid inhibits branching. See Diederik H. Keuskamp, Rashmi Sasidharan, and Ronald Pierik, “Physiological Regulation and Functional Significance of Shade Avoidance Responses to Neighbors,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 5, no. 6 (2010): 655–662; Pierik et al., “Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Competition”; Chuanwei Yang and Lin Li, “Hormonal Regulation in Shade Avoidance,” Frontiers in Plant Science 8 (2017): 1527.
(13)
Irma Roig-Villanova and Jaime Martínez-García, “Plant Responses to Vegetation Proximity: A Whole Life Avoiding Shade,” Frontiers in Plant Science 7 (2016): 236; Kasper van Gelderen, Chiakai Kang, Richard Paalman, et al., “Far-Red Light Detection in the Shoot Regulates Lateral Root Development through the HY5 Transcription Factor,” Plant Cell 30, no. 1 (2018): 101–116.
(14)
Jelmer Weijschedé, Jana Martínková, Hans de Kroon, and Heidrun Huber, “Shade Avoidance in Trifolium repens: Costs and Benefits of Plasticity in Petiole Length and Leaf Size,” New Phytologist 172 (2006): 655–666.
(15)
M. Franco, “The Influence of Neighbours on the Growth of Modular Organisms with an Example from Trees,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences 313, no. 1159 (1986): 209–225.
(16)
Andreas Möglich, Xiaojing Yang, Rebecca A. Ayers, and Keith Moffat, “Structure and Function of Plant Photoreceptors,” Annual Review of Plant Biology 61 (2010): 21–47; Inyup Paik and Enamul Huq, “Plant Photoreceptors: Multifunctional Sensory Proteins and Their Signaling Networks,” Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 92 (2019): 114–121.
(17)
Gruntman et al., “Decision-Making.” The plant hormones involved in this process include auxin, gibberellins, and ethylene—the latter well known for its role in the ripening of bananas and apples, described in Lin Ma, and Gang Li, “Auxin-Dependent Cell Elongation during the Shade Avoidance Response,” Frontiers in Plant Science 10 (2019):914 and Ronald Pierik, Eric J.W. Visser, Hans de Kroon, and Laurentius A. C. J. Voesenek, “Ethylene is Required in Tobacco to Successfully Compete with Proximate Neighbours,” Plant, Cell & Environment 26, no. 8 (2003): 1229–1234.
(18)
Although there is a general assumption that altruism among kin occurs due to increasing the possibility of passing on one’s genes, it is the increased possibility of passing on specific genes, referred to as survival genes or altruism genes, that drives kin selection, rather than bulk gene flow that would include many genes neutral to survival; Justin H. Park, “Persistent Misunderstandings of Inclusive Fitness and Kin Selection: Their Ubiquitous Appearance in Social Psychology Textbooks,” Evolutionary Psychology 5, no. 4 (2007): 860–873.
(19)
Guillermo P. Murphy and Susan A. Dudley, “Kin Recognition: Competition and Cooperation in Impatiens (Balsaminaceae),” American Journal of Botany 96, no. 11 (2009): 1990–1996.
(20)
María A. Crepy and Jorge J. Casal, “Photoreceptor-Mediated Kin Recognition in Plants,” New Phytologist 205, no. 1 (2015): 329–338; Murphy and Dudley, “Kin Recognition.”
(21)
Heather Fish, Victor J. Lieffers, Uldis Silins, and Ronald J. Hall, “Crown Shyness in Lodgepole Pine Stands of Varying Stand Height, Density, and Site Index in the Upper Foothills of Alberta,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, no. 9 (2006): 2104–2111; Francis E. Putz, Geoffrey G. Parker, and Ruth M. Archibald, “Mechanical Abrasion. and Intercrown Spacing,” American Midland Naturalist 112, no. 1 (1984): 24–28.
(22)
Franco, “The Influence of Neighbours on the Growth of Modular Organisms”; Alan J. Rebertus, “Crown Shyness in a Tropical Cloud Forest,” Biotropica vol. 20, no. 4 (1988): 338-339.
(23)
Tomáš Herben and Ariel Novoplansky, “Fight or Flight: Plastic Behavior under Self-Generated Heterogeneity,” Evolutionary Ecology 24, no. 6 (2010): 1521–1536.
(24)
Mieke de Wit, Gavin M. George, Yetkin Çaka Ince, et al., “Changes in Resource Partitioning Between and Within Organs Support Growth Adjustment to Neighbor Proximity in Brassicaceae Seedlings,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115, no. 42 (2018): E9953–E9961; Charlotte M. M. Gommers, Sara Buti, Danuše Tarkowská, et al., “Organ-Specific Phytohormone Synthesis in Two Geranium Species with Antithetical Responses to Far-red Light Enrichment,” Plant Direct 2 (2018): 1–12; Yang and Li, “Hormonal Regulation in Shade Avoidance.”
(25)
S. Mathur, L. Jain, and A. Jajoo, “Photosynthetic Efficiency in Sun and Shade Plants,” Photosynthetica 56, no. 1 (2018): 354–365.
(26)
Crepy and Casal, “Photoreceptor-Mediated Kin Recognition”; Gruntman et al., “Decision-making.”
(27)
Robert Axelrod and William D. Hamilton, “The Evolution of Cooperation,” Science 211, no. 4489 (1981): 1390–1396.
(28)
Joseph M. Craine and Ray Dybzinski, “Mechanisms of Plant Competition for Nutrients, Water and Light,” Functional Ecology 27, no. 4 (2013): 833–840; M. Gersani, Z. Abramsky, and O. Falik, “Density-Dependent Habitat Selection in Plants,” Evolutionary Ecology 12, no. 2 (1998): 223–234.
(29)
H. Marschner and V. Römheld, “Strategies of Plants for Acquisition of Iron,” Plant and Soil 165, no. 2 (1994): 261–274; Ricardo F. H. Giehl and Nicolaus von Wirén, “Root Nutrient Foraging,” Plant Physiology 166, no. 2 (2014): 509–517; Daniel P. Schachtman, Robert J. Reid, and Sarah M. Ayling, “Phosphorus Uptake by Plants: From Soil to Cell,” Plant Physiology 116, no. 2 (1998): 447–453.
(30)
Felix D. Dakora and Donald A. Phillips, “Root Exudates as Mediators of Mineral Acquisition in Low-nutrient Environments,” Plant and Soil 245 (2002): 35–47; Jordan Vacheron, Guilhem Desbrosses, Marie-Lara Bouffaud, et al., “Plant Growth-promoting Rhizo-bacteria and Root System Functioning,” Frontiers in Plant Science 4 (2013): 356.
(31)
H. Jochen Schenk, “Root Competition: Beyond Resource Depletion,” Journal of Ecology 94, no. 4 (2006): 725–739.
(32)
Susan A. Dudley and Amanda L. File, “Kin Recognition in an Annual Plant,” Biology Letters 3, no. 4 (2007): 435–438. Such responses are often associated with competition being affected by the “input-matching rule,” which states that the amount of available resources, or energy input, influences behavior that can be adjusted depending on the presence of kin or non-kin competitors; see Geoffrey A. Parker, “Searching for Mates,” in Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, ed. John R. Krebs and Nicholas B. Davies (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1978), 214–244.
(33)
Meredith L. Biedrzycki, Tafari A. Jilany, Susan A. Dudley, and Harsh P. Bais, “Root Exudates Mediate Kin Recognition in Plants,” Communicative and Integrative Biology 3, no. 1 (2010): 28–35.
(34)
Richard Karban, Louie H. Yang, and Kyle F. Edwards, “Volatile Communication between Plants That Affects Herbivory: A Meta-Analysis,” Ecology Letters 17, no. 1 (2014): 44–52.
(35)
Justin B. Runyon, Mark C. Mescher, and Consuelo M. De Moraes, “Volatile Chemical Cues Guide Host Location and Host Selection by Parasitic Plants,” Science 313, no. 5795 (2006): 1964–1967.
(36)
Kathleen L Farquharson, “A Sesquiterpene Distress Signal Transmitted by Maize,” Plant Cell 20, no. 2 (2008): 244; Pierik et al., “Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Competition,” 844.
(37)
Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants (Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions, 2015), 133; Janet I. Sprent, “Global Distribution of Legumes,” in Legume Nodulation: A Global Perspective (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 35–50; Jungwook Yang, Joseph W. Kloepper, and Choong-Min Ryu, “Rhizosphere Bacteria Help Plants Tolerate Abiotic Stress,” Trends in Plant Science 14, no. 1 (2009): 1–4; Sally E. Smith and David Read, “Introduction,” in Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, 3rd ed. (London: Academic Press, 2008), 1–9.
(38)
Yina Jiang, Wanxiao Wang, Qiujin Xie, et al., “Plants Transfer Lipids to Sustain Colonization by Mutualistic Mycorrhizal and Parasitic Fungi,” Science 356, no. 6343 (2017): 1172–1175; Andreas Keymer, Priya Pimprikar, Vera Wewer, et al., “Lipid Transfer From Plants to Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Fungi,” eLIFE 6 (2017): e29107; Leonie H. Luginbuehl, Guillaume N. Menard, Smita Kurup, et al., “Fatty Acids in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Are Synthesized by the Host Plant,” Science 356, no. 6343 (2017): 1175–1178; Tamir Klein, Rolf T. W. Siegwolf, and Christian Körner, “Belowground Carbon Trade among Tall Trees in a Temperate Forest,” Science 352, no. 6283 (2016): 342–344.
(39)
Mathilde Malbreil, Emilie Tisserant, Francis Martin, and Christophe Roux, “Genomics of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: Out of the Shadows,” Advances in Botanical Research 70 (2014): 259–290.
(40)
Zdenka Babikova, Lucy Gilbert, Toby J. A. Bruce, et al., “Underground Signals Carried through Common Mycelial Networks Warn Neighbouring Plants of Aphid Attack,” Ecology Letters 16, no. 7 (2013): 835–843.
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Amanda L. File, John Klironomos, Hafiz Maherali, and Susan A. Dudley, “Plant Kin Recognition Enhances Abundance of Symbiotic Microbial Partner,” PLoS ONE 7, no. 9 (2012): e45648.
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Angela Hodge, “Root Decisions,” Plant, Cell & Environment 32 (2009): 628–640.
(43)
Tereza Konvalinková and Jan Jansa, “Lights Off for Arbuscular Mycorrhiza: On Its Symbiotic Functioning under Light Deprivation,” Frontiers in Plant Science 7 (2016): 782.
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Abeer Hashem, Elsayed F. Abd_Allah, Abdulaziz A. Alqarawi, et al., “The Interaction between Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Endophytic Bacteria Enhances Plant Growth of Acacia gerrardii under Salt Stress,” Frontiers in Microbiology 7 (2016): 1089.
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Pedro M. Antunes, Amarilis De Varennes, Istvan Rajcan, and Michael J. Goss, “Accumulation of Specific Flavonoids in Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) as a Function of the Early Tripartite Symbiosis with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Bradyrhizobium japonicum (Kirchner) Jordan,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38, no. 6 (2006): 1234–1242; Sajid Mahmood Nadeem, Maqshoof Ahmad, Zahir Ahmad Zahir, et al., “The Role of Mycorrhizae and Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) in Improving Crop Productivity under Stressful Environments,” Biotechnology Advances 32, no. 2 (2014): 429–448.
(46)
Individual success models are described in Joseph A. Whittaker and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Cultivating Diversity and Competency in STEM: Challenges and Remedies for Removing Virtual Barriers to Constructing Diverse Higher Education Communities of Success,” Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education 11, no. 1 (2012): A44–A51; Beronda L. Montgomery, Jualynne E. Dodson, and Sonya M. Johnson, “Guiding the Way: Mentoring Graduate Students and Junior Faculty for Sustainable Academic Careers,” SAGE Open 4, no. 4 (2014): doi: 10.1177/2158244014558043.
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Patricia Matthew, ed., Written/Unwritten: Diversity and the Hidden Truths of Tenure. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press).

الفصل الثالث: المخاطرة من أجل الفوز

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Epigraph: Hope Jahren, Lab Girl (New York: Knopf, 2016), 52.
Janice Friedman and Matthew J. Rubin, “All in Good Time: Understanding Annual and Perennial Strategies in Plants,” American Journal of Botany 102, no. 4 (2015): 497–499.
(2)
Corrine Duncan, Nick L. Schultz, Megan K. Good, et al., “The Risk-Takers and -Avoiders: Germination Sensitivity to Water Stress in an Arid Zone with Unpredictable Rainfall,” AoB Plants 11, no. (2019): plz066.
(3)
Thomas Caraco, Steven Martindale, and Thomas S. Whittam, “An Empirical Demonstration of Risk-Sensitive Foraging Preferences,” Animal Behaviour 28, no. 3 (1980): 820–830; Hiromu Ito, “Risk Sensitivity of a Forager with Limited Energy Reserves in Stochastic Environments,” Ecological Research 34, no. 1 (2019): 9–17; Alex Kacelnik, and Melissa Bateson, “Risk-sensitivity: Crossroads for Theories of Decision-making,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 1, no. 8 (1997): 304–309.
(4)
Richard Karban, John L. Orrock, Evan L. Preisser, and Andrew Sih, “A Comparison of Plants and Animals in Their Responses to Risk of Consumption,” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 32 (2016): 1–8.
(5)
Efrat Dener, Alex Kacelnik, and Hagai Shemesh, “Pea Plants Show Risk Sensitivity,” Current Biology 26, no. 13 (2016): 1763–1767; Hagai Shemesh, Adi Arbiv, Mordechai Gersani, et al., “The Effects of Nutrient Dynamics on Root Patch Choice,” PLoS ONE 5, no. 5 (2010): e10824.
(6)
Hagai Shemesh, Ran Rosen, Gil Eshel, et al., “The Effect of Steepness of Temporal Resource Gradients on Spatial Root Allocation,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 6, no. 9 (2011): 1356–1360.
(7)
Shemesh et al., “The Effects of Nutrient Dynamics”; Shemesh and Novoplansky, “Branching the Risks.”
(8)
Enrico Pezzola, Stefano Mancuso, and Richard Karban, “Precipitation Affects Plant Communication and Defense,” Ecology 98, no. 6 (2017): 1693–1699.
(9)
Omer Falik, Yonat Mordoch, Lydia Quansah, et al., “Rumor Has It …: Relay Communication of Stress Cues in Plants,” PLoS ONE 6, no. 11 (2011): e23625.
(10)
Chuanwei Yang, and Lin Li, “Hormonal Regulation in Shade Avoidance,” Frontiers in Plant Science 8 (2017): 1527.
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Virginia Morell, “Plants Can Gamble,” Science Magazine News, June 2016, http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/06/plants-can-gamble-according-study.
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Dener, Kacelnik, and Shemesh, “Pea Plants Show Risk Sensitivity.”
(13)
Stefan Hörtensteiner, and Bernhard Kräutler, “Chlorophyll Breakdown in Higher Plants,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Bioenergetics 1807, no. 8 (2011): 977–988; Hazem M. Kalaji, Wojciech Bąba, Krzysztof Gediga, et al., “Chlorophyll Fluorescence as a Tool for Nutrient Status Identification in Rapeseed Plants,” Photosynthesis Research 136, no. 3 (2018): 329–343; Angela Hodge, “Root Decisions,” Plant, Cell & Environment 32, no. 6 (2009): 630.
(14)
Hodge, “Root Decisions,” 629.
(15)
Bagmi Pattanaik, Andrea W. U. Busch, Pingsha Hu, Jin Chen, and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Responses to Iron Limitation Are Impacted by Light Quality and Regulated by RcaE in the Chromatically Acclimating Cyanobacterium Fremyella diplosiphon,” Microbiology 160, no. 5 (2014): 992–1005; Sigal Shcolnick and Nir Keren, “Metal Homeostasis in Cyanobacteria and Chloroplasts. Balancing Benefits and Risks to the Photosynthetic Apparatus,” Plant Physiology 141, no. 3 (2006): 805–810.
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W. L. Lindsay and A. P. Schwab, “The Chemistry of Iron in Soils and Its Availability to Plants,” Journal of Plant Nutrition 5, no. 4–7 (1982): 821–840.
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Tristan Lurthy, Cécile Cantat, Christian Jeudy, et al., “Impact of Bacterial Siderophores on Iron Status and Ionome in Pea,” Frontiers in Plant Science 11 (2020): 730.
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H. Marschner and V. Römheld, “Strategies of Plants for Acquisition of Iron,” Plant and Soil 165, no. 2 (1994): 261–274.
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Lurthy et al., “Impact of Bacterial Siderophores.”
(20)
Chong Wei Jin, Yi Quan Ye, and Shao Jian Zheng, “An Underground Tale: Contribution of Microbial Activity to Plant Iron Acquisition via Ecological Processes,” Annals of Botany 113, no. 1 (2014): 7–18.
(21)
Shah Jahan Leghari, Niaz Ahmed Wahocho, Ghulam Mustafa Laghari, et al., “Role of Nitrogen for Plant Growth and Development: A Review,” Advances in Environmental Biology 10, no. 9 (2016): 209–219.
(22)
Philippe Nacry, Eléonore Bouguyon, and Alain Gojon, “Nitrogen Acquisition by Roots: Physiological and Developmental Mechanisms Ensuring Plant Adaptation to a Fluctuating Resource,” Plant and Soil 370, no. 1-2 (2013): 1–29.
(23)
Ricardo F. H. Giehl and Nicolaus von Wirén, “Root Nutrient Foraging,” Plant Physiology 166, no. 2 (2014): 509–517.
(24)
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobia and Frankia are housed in nodules inside plant roots (most commonly those of leguminous plants such as beans), while other nitrogen-fixing organisms, such as cyanobacteria, can be housed either on the external surface of roots or internally. For reviews, see Claudine Franche, Kristina Lindström, and Claudine Elmerich, “Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Associated with Leguminous and Non-Leguminous Plants,” Plant and Soil 321, no. 1-2 (2009): 35–59; Florence Mus, Matthew B. Crook, Kevin Garcia, et al., “Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and the Challenges to Its Extension to Nonlegumes,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 82, no. 13 (2016): 3698–3710; Carole Santi, Didier Bogusz, and Claudine Franche, “Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Non-Legume Plants,” Annals of Botany 111, no. 5 (2013): 743–767.
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Philippe Hinsinger, “Bioavailability of Soil Inorganic P in the Rhizosphere as Affected by Root-Induced Chemical Changes: A Review,” Plant and Soil 237 (2001): 173–195.
(26)
Daniel P. Schachtman, Robert J. Reid, and Sarah M. Ayling, “Phosphorus Uptake by Plants: From Soil to Cell,” Plant Physiology 116, no. 2 (1998): 447–453.
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Alan E. Richardson, Jonathan P. Lynch, Peter R. Ryan, et al., “Plant and Microbial Strategies to Improve the Phosphorus Efficiency of Agriculture,” Plant and Soil 349 (2011): 121–156; Schachtman et al., “Phosphorus Uptake by Plants.”
(28)
Carroll P. Vance, Claudia Uhde-Stone, and Deborah L. Allan, “Phosphorus Acquisition and Use: Critical Adaptations by Plants for Securing a Nonrenewable Resource,” New Phytologist 157, no. 3 (2003): 423–447.
(29)
K. G. Raghothama, “Phosphate Acquisition,” Annual Review of Plant Biology 50, no. 1 (1999): 665–693; Schachtman et al., “Phosphorus Uptake by Plants”; Marcel Bucher, “Functional Biology of Plant Phosphate Uptake at Root and Mycorrhiza Interfaces,” New Phytologist 173, no. 1 (2007): 11–26.
(30)
Martina Friede, Stephan Unger, Christine Hellmann, and Wolfram Beyschlag, “Conditions Promoting Mycorrhizal Parasitism Are of Minor Importance for Competitive Interactions in Two Differentially Mycotrophic Species,” Frontiers in Plant Science 7 (2016): 1465.
(31)
Eiji Gotoh, Noriyuki Suetsugu, Takeshi Higa, et al., “Palisade Cell Shape Affects the Light-Induced Chloroplast Movements and Leaf Photosynthesis,” Scientific Reports 8, no. 1 (2018): 1–9; L. A. Ivanova and V. I. P’yankov, “Structural Adaptation of the Leaf Mesophyll to Shading,” Russian Journal of Plant Physiology 49, no. 3 (2002): 419–431.
(32)
Photoprotective pigments, including xanthophylls and anthocyanins, are more abundant in sun leaves than in shade leaves. Investing in such proteins is energetically costly. See J. A. Gamon and J. S. Surfus, “Assessing Leaf Pigment Content and Activity with a Reflectometer,” New Phytologist 143, no. 1 (1999): 105–117; Susan S. Thayer and Olle Björkman, “Leaf Xanthophyll Content and Composition in Sun and Shade Determined by HPLC,” Photosynthesis Research 23, no. 3 (1990): 331–343.
(33)
Hagai Shemesh, and Ariel Novoplansky, “Branching the Risks: Architectural Plasticity and Bet-hedging in Mediterranean Annuals,” Plant Biology 15, no. 6 (2013): 1001–1012; Hagai Shemesh, Benjamin Zaitchik, Tania Acuña, and Ariel Novoplansky, “Architectural Plasticity in a Mediterranean Winter Annual,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 7, no. 4 (2012): 492–501.
(34)
Nir Sade, Alem Gebremedhin, and Menachem Moshelion, “Risk-taking Plants: Anisohydric Behavior as a Stress-resistance Trait,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 7, no.7 (2012): 767–770.

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The glycoprotein glomalin is an organic compound rich in carbon and nitrogen that is produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. It is released into the rhizosphere and alters soil properties such as aggregation and absorption of water; Karl Ritz and Iain M. Young, “Interactions between Soil Structure and Fungi,” Mycologist 18, no. 2 (2004): 52–59; Matthias C. Rillig, and Peter D. Steinberg, “Glomalin Production by an Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus: A Mechanism of Habitat Modification?,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry 34, no. 9 (2002): 1371–1374.
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(66)
On prescribed fire, see Zwolinski, “Fire Effects on Vegetation and Succession,” 18–24.

الفصل الخامس: مجتمع متنوِّع

(1)
Epigraph: Andrea Wulf, The Invention of Nature: Alexander von Humboldt’s New World (New York: Knopf, 2015), 125.
Cynthia C. Chang and Melinda D. Smith, “Resource Availability Modulates Above—and Below—Ground Competitive Interactions between Genotypes of a Dominant C4 Grass,” Functional Ecology 28, no. 4 (2014): 1041–1051, 1042; David Tilman, Resource Competition and Community Structure (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).
(2)
Philip O. Adetiloye, “Effect of Plant Populations on the Productivity of Plantain and Cassava Intercropping,” Moor Journal of Agricultural Research 5, no. 1 (2004): 26–32; Long Li, David Tilman, Hans Lambers, and Fu-Suo Zhang, “Plant Diversity and Overyielding: Insights from Belowground Facilitation of Intercropping in Agriculture,” New Phytologist 203, no. 1 (2014): 63–69; Zhi-Gang Wang, Xin Jin, Xing-Guo Bao, et al., “Intercropping Enhances Productivity and Maintains the Most Soil Fertility Properties Relative to Sole Cropping,” PLoS ONE, 9 (2014): e113984.
(3)
Li et al., “Plant Diversity and Overyielding,” 2014.
(4)
Venida S. Chenault, “Three Sisters: Lessons of Traditional Story Honored in Assessment and Accreditation,” Tribal College 19, no. 4 (2008): 15-16; Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants (Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions, 2015), 132.
(5)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 128–140; K. Kris Hirst, “The Three Sisters: The Traditional Intercropping Agricultural Method,” ThoughtCo, May 30, 2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/three-sisters-american-farming-173034.
(6)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 131.
(7)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 130.
(8)
Adetiloye, “Effect of Plant Populations on the Productivity of Plantain and Cassava Intercropping”; P. O. Aiyelari, A. N. Odede, and S. O. Agele, “Growth, Yield and Varietal Responses of Cassava to Time of Planting into Plantain Stands in a Plantain/Cassava Intercrop in Akure, South-West Nigeria,” Journal of Agronomy Research 2, no. 2 (2019): 1–16.
(9)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 131; Abdul Rashid War, Michael Gabriel Paulraj, Tariq Ahmad, et al., “Mechanisms of Plant Defense against Insect Herbivores,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 7, no. 10 (2012): 1306–1320.
(10)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 140.
(11)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 132.
(12)
Lindsay Chaney and Regina S. Baucom, “The Soil Microbial Community Alters Patterns of Selection on Flowering Time and Fitness-related Traits in Ipomoea purpurea,” American Journal of Botany 107, no. 2 (2020): 186–194; Jennifer A. Lau and Jay T. Lennon, “Evolutionary Ecology of Plant–Microbe Interactions: Soil Microbial Structure Alters Selection on Plant Traits,” New Phytologist 192, no. 1 (2011): 215–224; Marcel G. A. Van Der Heijden, Richard D. Bardgett, and Nico M. Van Straalen, “The Unseen Majority: Soil Microbes as Drivers of Plant Diversity and Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems,” Ecology Letters 11, no. 3 (2008): 296–310.
(13)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 133; Catherine Bellini, Daniel I. Pacurar, and Irene Perrone, “Adventitious Roots and Lateral Roots: Similarities and Differences,” Annual Review of Plant Biology 65 (2014): 639–666.
(14)
Angela Hodge, “The Plastic Plant: Root Responses to Heterogeneous Supplies of Nutrients,” New Phytologist 162, no. 1 (2004): 9–24.
(15)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 140.
(16)
Henrik Hartmann and Susan Trumbore, “Understanding the Roles of Nonstructural Carbohydrates in Forest Trees—From What We Can Measure to What We Want to Know,” New Phytologist 211, no. 2 (2016): 386–403.
(17)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 133; Janet I. Sprent, “Global Distribution of Legumes,” in Legume Nodulation: A Global Perspective (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 35–50; Jungwook Yang, Joseph W. Kloepper, and Choong-Min Ryu, “Rhizosphere Bacteria Help Plants Tolerate Abiotic Stress,” Trends in Plant Science 14, no. 1 (2009): 1–4.
(18)
Tamir Klein, Rolf T. W. Siegwolf, and Christian Körner, “Belowground Carbon Trade among Tall Trees in a Temperate Forest,” Science 352, no. 6283 (2016): 342–344.
(19)
Cyril Zipfel and Silke Robatzek, “Pathogen-Associated Molecular Pattern-Triggered Immunity: Veni, Vidi…?,” Plant Physiology 154, no. 2 (2010): 551–554.
(20)
Kevin R. Bairos-Novak, Maud C. O. Ferrari, and Douglas P. Chivers, “A Novel Alarm Signal in Aquatic Prey: Familiar Minnows Coordinate Group Defences against Predators through Chemical Disturbance Cues,” Journal of Animal Ecology 88, no. 9 (2019): 1281–1290.
(21)
Van Breugel et al., “Soil Nutrients and Dispersal Limitation.”
(22)
Robin Wall Kimmerer, “Weaving Traditional Ecological Knowledge into Biological Education: A Call to Action,” BioScience 52, no. 5 (2002): 432–438.
(23)
Chenault, “Three Sisters.”
(24)
See Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 134.
(25)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass; Jayalaxshmi Mistry and Andrea Berardi, “Bridging Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge,” Science 352, no. 6291(2016): 1274–1275.
(26)
Robin Wall Kimmerer, “The Intelligence in All Kinds of Life,” On Being with Krista Tippett, original broadcast February 25, 2016, https://onbeing.org/programs/robin-wall-kimmerer-the-intelligence-in-all-kinds-of-life-jul2018/.
(27)
Joseph A.Whittaker and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Cultivating Institutional Transformation and Sustainable STEM Diversity in Higher Education through Integrative Faculty Development,” Innovative Higher Education 39, no. 4 (2014): 263–275.
(28)
Whittaker and Montgomery, “Cultivating Institutional Transformation.”
(29)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 132.
(30)
Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 58.
(31)
For examples of the role of cultural competence in promoting successful outcomes in collaboration, see Stephanie M. Reich and Jennifer A. Reich, “Cultural Competence in Interdisciplinary Collaborations: A Method for Respecting Diversity in Research Partnerships,” American Journal of Community Psychology 38, no. 1–2 (2006): 51–62.
(32)
Joseph A. Whittaker and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Cultivating Diversity and Competency in STEM: Challenges and Remedies for Removing Virtual Barriers to Constructing Diverse Higher Education Communities of Success,” Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education 11, no. 1 (2012): A44–A51; Kim Parker, Rich Morin, and Juliana Menasce Horowitz, “Looking to the Future, Public Sees an America in Decline on Many Fronts,” Pew Research Center, March 2019, ch. 3, “Views of Demographic Changes,” https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2019/03/US-2050_full_report-FINAL.pdf.

الفصل السادس: خطة للنجاح

(1)
Epigraph: Dawna Markova, I Will Not Die an Unlived Life: Reclaiming Purpose and Passion (Berkeley, CA: Conari Press, 2000), 1.
Cynthia C. Chang and Melinda D. Smith, “Resource Availability Modulates Above—and Below—ground Competitive Interactions between Genotypes of a Dominant C4 Grass,” Functional Ecology 28, no. 4 (2014): 1041–1051.
(2)
Jannice Friedman and Matthew J. Rubin, “All in Good Time: Understanding Annual and Perennial Strategies in Plants,” American Journal of Botany 102, no. 4 (2015): 497–499.
(3)
Diederik H. Keuskamp, Rashmi Sasidharan, and Ronald Pierik, “Physiological Regulation and Functional Significance of Shade Avoidance Responses to Neighbors,” Plant Signaling & Behavior 5, no. 6 (2010): 655–662.
(4)
Katherine M. Warpeha and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Light and Hormone Interactions in the Seed-to-Seedling Transition,” Environmental and Experimental Botany 121 (2016): 56–65.
(5)
Lourens Poorter, “Are Species Adapted to Their Regeneration Niche, Adult Niche, or Both?” American Naturalist 169, no. 4 (2007): 433–442.
(6)
Anders Forsman, “Rethinking Phenotypic Plasticity and Its Consequences for Individuals, Populations and Species,” Heredity 115 (2015): 276–284; Robert Muscarella, María Uriarte, Jimena Forero-Montaña, et al., “Life-history Trade-offs during the Seed-to-Seedling Transition in a Subtropical Wet Forest Community,” Journal of Ecology 101, no. 1 (2013): 171–182; Warpeha and Montgomery, “Light and Hormone Interactions.”
(7)
Carl Procko, Charisse Michelle Crenshaw, Karin Ljung, et al., “Cotyledon-generated Auxin Is Required for Shade-induced Hypocotyl Growth in Brassica rapa,” Plant Physiology 165, no. 3 (2014): 1285–1301; Chuanwei Yang and Lin Li, “Hormonal Regulation in Shade Avoidance,” Frontiers in Plant Science 8 (2017): 1527.
(8)
Taylor S. Feild, David W. Lee, and N. Michele Holbrook, “Why Leaves Turn Red in Autumn. The Role of Anthocyanins in Senescing Leaves of Red-Osier Dogwood,” Plant Physiology 127, no. 2 (2001): 566–574; Bertold Mariën, Manuela Balzarolo, Inge Dox, et al., “Detecting the Onset of Autumn Leaf Senescence in Deciduous Forest Trees of the Temperate Zone,” New Phytologist 224, no. 1 (2019): 166–176; Edward J. Primka and William K. Smith, “Synchrony in Fall Leaf Drop: Chlorophyll Degradation, Color Change, and Abscission Layer Formation in Three Temperate Deciduous Tree Species,” American Journal of Botany 106, no. 3 (2019): 377–388.
(9)
It appears that energy is invested in synthesizing anthocyanins at a time when it would seem prudent to limit energy spent on making new compounds because of their role in screening plant cells from phototoxicity during degreening; Feild et al., “Why Leaves Turn Red in Autumn”; Primka and Smith, “Synchrony in Fall Leaf Drop.”
(10)
Monika A. Gorzelak, Amanda K. Asay, Brian J. Pickles, and Suzanne W. Simard, “Interplant Communication through Mycorrhizal Networks Mediates Complex Adaptive Behaviour in Plant Communities,” AoB Plants 7 (2015): plv050.
(11)
Gorzelak et al., “Interplant Communication through Mycorrhizal”; David Robinson and Alastair Fitter, “The Magnitude and Control of Carbon Transfer between Plants Linked by a Common Mycorrhizal Network,” Journal of Experimental Botany 50, no. 330 (1999): 9–13.
(12)
David P. Janos, “Mycorrhizae Influence Tropical Succession,” Biotropica 12, no. 2 (1980): 56–64; Leanne Philip, Suzanne Simard, and Melanie Jones, “Pathways for Below-ground Carbon Transfer between Paper Birch and Douglas-fir Seedlings,” Plant Ecology & Diversity 3, no. 3 (2010): 221–233.
(13)
Tamir Klein, Rolf T. W. Siegwolf, and Christian Körner, “Belowground Carbon Trade among Tall Trees in a Temperate Forest,” Science 352, no. 6283 (2016): 342–344.
(14)
Peng-Jun Zhang, Jia-Ning Wei, Chan Zhao, et al., “Airborne Host–Plant Manipulation by Whiteflies via an Inducible Blend of Plant Volatiles,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 15 (2019): 7387–7396.
(15)
Sarah Courbier and Ronald Pierik, “Canopy Light Quality Modulates Stress Responses in Plants,” iScience 22 (2019): 441–452.
(16)
Scott Hayes, Chrysoula K. Pantazopoulou, Kasper van Gelderen, et al., “Soil Salinity Limits Plant Shade Avoidance,” Current Biology 29, no. 10 (2019): 1669–1676; Wouter Kegge, Berhane T. Weldegergis, Roxina Soler, et al., “Canopy Light Cues Affect Emission of Constitutive and Methyl Jasmonate-induced Volatile Organic Compounds in Arabidopsis thaliana,” New Phytologist 200, no. 3 (2013): 861–874.
(17)
Beronda L. Montgomery, “Planting Equity: Using What We Know to Cultivate Growth as a Plant Biology Community,” Plant Cell (2020): doi.org/10.1105/tpc.20.00589.
(18)
I use the term “minoritized” for people or groups who “as a result of social constructs have less power or representation compared to other members or groups in society”; the term “minority” can simply indicate being smaller in number, rather than reflecting a systematic structure related to histories of oppression, exclusion, or other inequities. See I. E. Smith, “Minority vs. Minoritized: Why the Noun Just Doesn’t Cut It,” Odyssey, September 2, 2016, https://www.theodysseyonline.com/minority-vs-minoritize.
(19)
Emma D. Cohen, and Will R. McConnell, “Fear of Fraudulence: Graduate School Program Environments and the Impostor Phenomenon,” Sociological Quarterly 60, no. 3 (2019): 457–478; Mind Tools Content Team, “Impostor Syndrome: Facing Fears of Inad-equacy and Self-Doubt,” Mindtools, https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/overcoming-impostor-syndrome.htm; Sindhumathi Revuluri, “How to Overcome Impostor Syndrome,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 4, 2018, https://www.chronicle.com/article/How-to-Overcome-Impostor/244700.
(20)
Beronda L. Montgomery, “Mentoring as Environmental Stewardship,” CSWEP News 2019, no. 1 (2019): 10–12.
(21)
Montgomery, “Mentoring as Environmental Stewardship.”
(22)
Angela M. Byars-Winston, Janet Branchaw, Christine Pfund, et al., “Culturally Diverse Undergraduate Researchers’ Academic Outcomes and Perceptions of Their Research Mentoring Relationships,” International Journal of Science Education 37, no. 15 (2015): 2533–2553; Christine Pfund, Christine Maidl Pribbenow, Janet Branchaw, et al., “The Merits of Training Mentors,” Science 311, no. 5760 (2006): 473–474; Christine Pfund, Stephanie C. House, Pamela Asquith, et al., “Training Mentors of Clinical and Translational Research Scholars: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Academic Medicine 89, no. 5 (2014): 774–782; Christine Pfund, Kimberly C. Spencer, Pamela Asquith, et al., “Building National Capacity for Research Mentor Training: An Evidence-Based Approach to Training the Trainers,” CBE-Life Sciences Education 14, no. 2 (2015): ar24.
(23)
Center for the Improvement of Mentored Experiences in Research, https://cimerproject.org/#/; National Research Mentoring Network, https://nrmnet.net/; Becky Wai-Ling Packard, mentoring resources, n.d., https://commons.mtholyoke.edu/beckypackard/resources/.
(24)
Recent research and discussion have highlighted the need for culturally relevant practices in mentoring and leadership. Such practices recognize that individuals come from different backgrounds, with distinct cultural norms and practices. Mentors and leaders often have to increase their cultural competence to effectively support individuals from a broad range of different cultures; Torie Weiston-Serdan, Critical Mentoring: A Practical Guide (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2017), 44; Angela Byars-Winston, “Toward a Framework for Multicultural STEM-Focused Career Interventions,” Career Development Quarterly 62, no. 4 (2014): 340–357; Beronda L. Montgomery and Stephani C. Page, “Mentoring beyond Hierarchies: Multi-Mentor Systems and Models,” Commissioned Paper for National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Committee on Effective Mentoring in STEMM (2018), https://www.nap.edu/resource/25568/Montgomery%20and%20Page%20-%20Mentoring.pdf.
(25)
Weiston-Serdan, Critical Mentoring, 44; see also Joseph A. Whittaker and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Cultivating Diversity and Competency in STEM: Challenges and Remedies for Removing Virtual Barriers to Constructing Diverse Higher Education Communities of Success,” Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education 11, no. 1 (2012): A44–A51.
(26)
Betty Neal Crutcher, “Cross-Cultural Mentoring: A Pathway to Making Excellence Inclusive,” Liberal Education 100, no. 2 (2014): 26.
(27)
Weiston-Serdan, Critical Mentoring, 14.
(28)
George C. Banks, Ernest H. O’Boyle Jr, Jeffrey M. Pollack, et al., “Questions about Questionable Research Practices in the Field of Management: A Guest Commentary,” Journal of Management 42, no. 1 (2016): 5–20; Ferrie C. Fang and Arturo Casadevall, “Competitive Science: Is Competition Ruining Science?” Infection and Immunity 83, no. 4 (2015): 1229–1233; Shina Caroline Lynn Kamerlin, “Hypercompetition in Biomedical Research Evaluation and Its Impact on Young Scientist Careers,” International Microbiology 18, no. 4 (2015): 253–261; Beronda L. Montgomery, Jualynne E. Dodson, and Sonya M. Johnson, “Guiding the Way: Mentoring Graduate Students and Junior Faculty for Sustainable Academic Careers,” SAGE Open 4, no. 4 (2014): doi: 10.1177/2158244014558043.

خاتمة

(1)
Epigraph: Monica Gagliano, Thus Spoke the Plant: A Remarkable Journey of Groundbreaking Scientific Discoveries and Personal Encounters with Plants (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2018), 93.
Sonia E. Sultan, “Developmental Plasticity: Re-conceiving the Genotype,” Interface Focus 7, no. 5 (2017): 20170009, 3.
(2)
Monica Gagliano, Michael Renton, Martial Depczynski, and Stefano Mancuso, “Experience Teaches Plants to Learn Faster and Forget Slower in Environments Where It Matters,” Oecologia 175, no. 1 (2014): 63–72; Evelyn L. Jensen, Lawrence M. Dill, and James F. Cahill Jr., “Applying Behavioral-Ecological Theory to Plant Defense: Light-dependent Movement in Mimosa pudica Suggests a Trade-off between Predation Risk and Energetic Reward,” American Naturalist 177, no. 3 (2011): 377–381; Franz W. Simon, Christina N. Hodson, and Bernard D. Roitberg, “State Dependence, Personality, and Plants: Light-foraging Decisions in Mimosa pudica (L.),” Ecology and Evolution 6, no. 17 (2016): 6301–6309.
(3)
Beronda L. Montgomery, “How I Work and Thrive in Academia—From Affirmation, Not for Affirmation,” Being Lazy and Slowing Down Blog, September 30, 2019, https://lazyslowdown.com/how-i-work-and-thrive-in-academia-from-affirmation-not-for-affirmation/.
(4)
Beronda L. Montgomery, “Academic Leadership: Gatekeeping or Groundskeeping?” Journal of Values-Based Leadership 13, no. 2 (2020); Beronda L. Montgomery, “Mentoring as Environmental Stewardship,” CSWEP News 2019, no. 1 (2019): 10–12.
(5)
Montgomery, “Academic Leadership”; Beronda L. Montgomery, “Effective Mentors Show up Healed,” Beronda L. Montgomery website, December 5, 2019, http://www.berondamontgomery.com/mentoring/effective-mentors-show-up-healed/.
(6)
Andrew J. Dubrin, Leadership: Researching Findings, Practice, and Skills, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004).
(7)
Beronda L. Montgomery “Pathways to Transformation: Institutional Innovation for Promoting Progressive Mentoring and Advancement in Higher Education,” Susan Bulkeley Butler Center for Leadership Excellence, Purdue University, Working Paper Series 1, no. 1, Navigating Careers in the Academy, 2018, 10–18, https://www.purdue.edu/butler/working-paper-series/docs/Inaugural%20Issue%20May2018.pdf.
(8)
Miller McPherson, Lynn Smith-Lovin, and, James M. Cook, “Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks,” Annual Review of Sociology 27, no. 1 (2001): 415–444.
(9)
Montgomery, “Academic Leadership.”
(10)
Szu-Fang Chuang, “Essential Skills for Leadership Effectiveness in Diverse Workplace Development,” Online Journal for Workforce Education and Development 6, no. 1 (2013): 5; Katherine Holt and Kyoko Seki, “Global Leadership: A Developmental Shift for Everyone,” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 5, no. 2 (2012): 196–215; Nhu TB Nguyen and Katsuhiro Umemoto, “Understanding Leadership for Cross-Cultural Knowledge Management,” Journal of Leadership Studies 2, no. 4 (2009): 23–35; Joseph A. Whittaker and Beronda L. Montgomery, “Cultivating Institutional Transformation and Sustainable STEM Diversity in Higher Education through Integrative Faculty Development,” Innovative Higher Education 39, no. 4 (2014): 263–275; Joseph A. Whittaker, Beronda L. Montgomery, and Veronica G. Martinez Acosta, “Retention of Underrepresented Minority Faculty: Strategic Initiatives for Institutional Value Proposition Based on Perspectives from a Range of Academic Institutions,” Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education 13, no. 3 (2015): A136–A145; Torie Weiston-Serdan, Critical Mentoring: A Practical Guide (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2017).
(11)
Stephanie M. Reich and Jennifer A. Reich, “Cultural Competence in Interdisciplinary Collaborations: A Method for Respecting Diversity in Research Partnerships,” American Journal of Community Psychology 38, no. 1 (2006): 51–62.
(12)
Montgomery, “Academic Leadership.”
(13)
Montgomery, “Mentoring as Environmental Stewardship.”
(14)
Montgomery, “Academic Leadership.”
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