ملاحظات

تمهيد

(1)

Barack Obama, “Remarks to the US Hispanic Chamber of Commerce” (speech, Washington, DC, March 10, 2009), The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/286729.

(2)

From “What Parents Should Know [about the Common Core],” Common Core State Standards Initiative, accessed November 27, 2018, http://www.corestandards.org/what-parents-should-know/. For full information about the Common Core standards, visit www.corestandards.org.

(3)

US Department of Education, America 2000: An Education Strategy, May 1991, 64, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED327985.pdf.

(4)

Hart Research Associates and the Association of American Colleges and Universities, It Takes More Than a Major: Employer Priorities for College Learning and Student Success: Overview and Key Findings, April 10, 2013, https://www.aacu.org/sites/default/files/files/LEAP/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdf.

(5)

For more information on this OECD research study, which was underway when this book was being written, visit http://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/Fostering-and-assessing-students-creative-and-critical-thinking-skills-in-higher-education.pdf.

(6)

Yu Dong, “Critical Thinking Education with Chinese Characteristics,” in The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education, ed. Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 351–368.

(7)

I turned the Critical Voter curriculum into a book published before the 2016 election. Unfortunately, that work seems to have not had great impact on voter behavior. (For information on the project, visit www.criticalvoter.com.)

(8)

Richard Arum and Josipa Roska, Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 121.

(9)

Arum and Roska, 35, citing “The American College Teacher: National Norms for 2007-2008,” HERI Research Brief, March 2009, http://learningoutcomesassessment.org/documents/brief-pr030508-08faculty.pdf.

الفصل الأول: أصول التفكير النقدي

(1)

Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, s.v. “chemistry,” accessed November 29, 2018, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chemistry.

(2)

Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: Free Press, 1979), 39.

(3)

For a description of how this process unfolded for one important philosophical work, Lucretius’s “On the Nature of Things,” see Stephen Greenblatt, The Swerve: How the World Became Modern (New York: Norton, 2012).

(4)

In The Republic, Plato lays out a metaphysics in which all things in the world, from physical objects to abstractions like truth and beauty, reflect or partake in perfect forms of those objects or abstractions that exist beyond human perception. For instance, any dog we have encountered in our lives is an imperfect worldly example of the ideal form of “dog,” just as the true and the beautiful are ideals we can hope to get closer to by studying philosophy.

(5)

The mechanism whereby one scientific “paradigm” replaces another was described by Thomas Kuhn in his enormously influential 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

(6)

While historians assign different dates to the beginning and end of Europe’s Enlightenment Era, for purposes of this discussion it can be thought of as a period that ran through the eighteenth century when ideas generated during the Scientific Revolution inspired thinkers to contemplate how other human endeavors, and society itself, could be reorganized based on human reason.

(7)

Philosopher Lee McIntyre discusses the culture that instills and supports scientific thinking in his book The Scientific Attitude (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2019).

(8)

Many challenges to claims of scientific knowledge, by scientists such as Pierre Duhem and philosophers like Willard Van Orman Quine, fall into the category of “underdetermination,” which highlights that our current evidence might be not be adequate to support explanations of how the world works. While variations in underdetermination are beyond the scope of this book, you can read more about the subject at https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/.

(9)

Emily R. Lai, “Critical Thinking: A Literature Review,” Pearson Research Report, June 2011, 7, http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/CriticalThinkingReviewFINAL.pdf.

(10)

See Charles S. Peirce, “The Fixation of Belief,” Popular Science Monthly 12 (November 1877): 1–15, http://www.peirce.org/writings/p107.html.

(11)

For example, see Williamson M. Evers, “How Progressive Education Gets It Wrong,” Hoover Digest, vol. 4 (1998), available at https://www.hoover.org/research/how-progressive-education-gets-it-wrong.

(12)

John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: Free Press, 1997).

(13)

John Dewey, John Dewey The Later Works, 1925–1953, Essays and How We Think, ed. Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press, 2008).

(14)

Dewey, The Later Works, 153.

(15)

Dewey, The Later Works.

(16)

John Dewey, Experience and Education (Kappa Delta Pi Lectures, 1938).

(17)

Dewey, The Later Works, 118.

(18)

Edward M. Glaser, “An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking” (Master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1941).

(19)

See chapter 3 for more information on assessing critical-thinking skills.

(20)

For a summary of the background and process for updating Bloom’s taxonomy that includes links to more extensive information on the update, see https://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/beyond-bloom-cognitive-taxonomy-revised/.

(21)

For information on how building on prior learning and other techniques derived from cognitive science can improve teaching and learning, see https://deansforimpact.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/The_Science_of_Learning.pdf.

(22)

Daniel Kahneman, Thinking Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015), 119.

(23)

Google “invisible gorilla” to see to see an amusing example of flaws in human perception and reasoning.

(24)

Harry Harmon, Executive Vice Chancellor, The California State University and Colleges, “Chancellor’s Executive Order 338,” October 29, 1980, https://www.calstate.edu/eo/EO-338.pdf.

(25)

See Richard W. Paul, “The Critical Thinking Movement: A Historical Perspective,” National Forum 65, no. 1 (1985), https://www.criticalthinking.org/data/pages/48/4961767a3a4709bf9d4ec478c406391851352ae218fec.pdf.

(26)

David P. Gardner et al., “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform,” National Commission on Excellence in Education, April 1983, https://www.edreform.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/A_Nation_At_Risk_1983.pdf.

(27)

The reference to an “age of achievement” is taken from Patricia Graham’s 2007 history of the American education system, Schooling America (see Additional Resources).

(28)

See, for instance, the OECD research study mentioned in the preface.

(29)

Hazel W. Hertzberg, “Foundations: The 1892 Committee of Ten,” Social Education 52, no. 2 (February 1988), https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ365372.

الفصل الثاني: عناصر التفكير النقدي

(1)

For example, a logical argument for the existence of God proposed by Saint Anselm in 1076, called the ontological argument, perplexed many critics who struggled to explain why it was wrong until the development of modal logic in the twentieth century provided a way to show how the argument suffers from faulty premises. See http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/cosmicvariance/2011/03/10/modal-logic-and-the-ontological-proof/#.XKHZQJhKg2x.

(2)

For information on the organization, see https://ailact.wordpress.com/.

(3)

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, s.v. “Validity and Soundness,” https://www.iep.utm.edu/val-snd/ (accessed March 12, 2019).

(4)

For more information on how to evaluate informal arguments, including a discussion of ARS (Accuracy, Relevance and Sufficiency) of premises, see the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; s.v. “Informal Logic,” https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ (accessed March, 12, 2019).

(5)

The Additional Resources section includes books and other material for those interested in exploring further the wide range of logical systems used to perform different types of intellectual work.

(6)

For a discussion of invalid logical forms, see the fallacies discussed later in this chapter.

(7)

Inference to best explanation is also referred to as “abduction,” a form of reasoning distinct from the deductive and inductive varieties. When scientists attempt to find the simplest explanation for a phenomenon that fits known data (like a heliocentered universe that explains the perceived motions of the sun, moon, and planets), they are engaging in abductive reasoning. While preference for simple explanations over complex ones can be seen in early philosophical and scientific ideas (such as Occam’s razor, which prefers explanations based on the fewest number of assumptions), modern logical systems for abductive reasoning were developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by the Pragmatic philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce. For more information on abduction, see https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/.

(8)

See Nigel Warburton, Thinking from A to Z (London: Routledge, 2008). Excerpt at https://nigelwarburton.typepad.com/virtualphilosopher/2007/01/principle_of_ch.html.

(9)

As with other vast topics intersecting with critical thinking, rhetoric/persuasive communication is another topic covered by readings and other materials in Additional Resources.

(10)

Richard Andrews, “Critical Thinking and/or Argumentation in Higher Education,” in The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education, ed. M. Davies and R. Barnett (New York: Macmillan, 2015), 49–62, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F9781137378057_3.

(11)

Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, s.v. “argument,” accessed November 6, 2018, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/argument.

(12)

Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary.

(13)

Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary.

(14)

Jay Heinrichs’s Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion includes a discussion of characteristics distinct to arguments versus fights (see Additional Resources).

(15)

Matthew McKeon, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, s.v. “Argument,” https://www.iep.utm.edu/argument/ (Accessed March 15, 2019).

(16)

Daniel T. Willingham, “Critical Thinking: Why Is It So Hard to Teach?” American Educator, Summer 2007, 8–19.

(17)

“Information Literacy,” University of Idaho Information Literacy Portal, accessed November 25, 2018, http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/info_literacy/.

(18)

Originally introduced and used in the fields of engineering and product development, Design Thinking has since spilled into other domains, much of this enthusiasm inspired by the work of the international design firm IDEO.

(19)

Information on the STEM to STEAM initiatives spearheaded by the Rhode Island School of Design can be found at http://stemtosteam.org/.

(20)

Dewey, Later Works, 115.

(21)

See www.criticalthinking.org.

(22)

For a more detailed description of these traits, see http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/valuable-intellectual-traits/528.

(23)

This concept derives from Aristotle’s work on ethics in which he defined virtue as being the “golden mean” between too much or too little of a trait. For example, the virtue of courage can be found at the appropriate point between cowardice and rashness.

(24)

Keith Thomas and Beatrice Lock, “Teaching Critical Thinking: An Operational Framework,” in The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education, ed. M. Davies and R. Barnett (New York: Macmillan, 2015), 93–105, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F9781137378057_6.

الفصل الثالث: تعريف التفكير النقدي وتدريسه وتقييمه

(1)

“Our Concept and Definition of Critical Thinking,” The Foundation for Critical Thinking, accessed November 29, 2018, http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/our-conception-of-critical-thinking/411.

(2)

Emily R. Lai, “Critical Thinking: A Literature Review,” Pearson Assessments, June 2011, http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/CriticalThinkingReviewFINAL.pdf.

(3)

Lai citing R. H. Ennis, “A Logical Basis for Measuring Critical Thinking Skills,” Educational Leadership 43, no. 2 (1985).

(4)

Lai citing S. Bailin, R. Case, J. R. Coombs, and L. B. Daniels, “Conceptualizing Critical Thinking,” Journal of Curriculum Studies 31, no. 3 (1999).

(5)

Lai citing R. J. Sternberg, “Critical Thinking: Its Nature, Measurement, and Improvement,” National Institute of Education, http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED272882.pdf.

(6)

Matthew Ventura, Emily Lai, and Kristen DiCerbo, Skills for Today: What We Know about Teaching and Assessing Critical Thinking (London: Pearson, 2017), https://www.pearson.com/content/dam/one-dot-com/one-dot-com/global/Files/efficacy-and-research/skills-for-today/Critical-Thinking-FullReport.pdf.

(7)

Peter Facione, “Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction. Research Findings and Recommendations,” report prepared for the American Philosophical Association, 1990, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED315423.pdf, 3.

(8)

Peter Elbow, Writing Without Teachers, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

(9)

Peter Elbow, “The Believing Game—Methodological Believing,” Journal for the Assembly for Expanded Perspectives on Learning 14 (January 2008), https:// scholarworks.umass.edu/eng_faculty_pubs/5.

(10)

Connie Missimer, “Why Two Heads Are Better Than One: Philosophical and Pedagogical Implications of a Social View of Critical Thinking,” in Re-Thinking Reason: New Perspectives in Critical Thinking, ed. Kerry S. Walters (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), 120.

(11)

Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein, Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness (New York: Penguin, 2009).

(12)

Cass R. Sunstein, Infotopia: How Many Minds Produce Knowledge (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

(13)

See http://www.battelleforkids.org/networks/p21.

(14)

Davies and Barnett, The Palgrave Handbook, 19.

(15)

Karen J. Warren, “Critical Thinking and Feminism,” in Re-Thinking Reason, 155–176.

(16)

Essays in The Palgrave Handbook and Rethinking Reason are dedicated to the subject, which can be traced back to Paulo Freire’s 1968 Pedagogy of the Oppressed, English ed. (New York: Continuum, 1970).

(17)

Frances E. Jensen and Amy Ellis Nutt, The Teenage Brain: A Neuroscientists Survival Guide to Raising Adolescents and Young Adults (New York: Harper, 2015).

(18)

For details on the P4C trial, see “Philosophy for Children,” Education Endowment Foundation, https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/projects-and-evaluation/projects/philosophy-for-children/.

(19)

For a description of efforts in different countries to include philosophy in the curriculum for learners of all ages, see “Teaching Philosophy in Europe and North America,” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2011.

(20)

Philip Abrami et al., “Instructional Interventions Affecting Critical Thinking Skills and Dispositions: A Stage 1 Meta-Analysis,” Review of Educational Research 78, no. 4 (December 2008): 1102–1134.

(21)

For details on the Common Core ELA writing standards for the eleventh and twelfth grades, see “English Language Arts Standards >> Writing >> Grade 11-12,” Common Core State Standards Initiative, http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/W/11-12/.

(22)

Robert H. Ennis, “Critical Thinking and Subject Specificity: Clarification and Needed Research,” Educational Researcher 18, no. 3 (1989).

(23)

Ennis.

(24)

Abrami et al., “Instructional Interventions.”

(25)

Tim van Gelder, “Teaching Critical Thinking: Some Lessons from Cognitive Science,” College Teaching 53, no. 1 (2005): 41–46.

(26)

While four hours a day is a significant amount of time to dedicate to practicing a skill, the fact that we are thinking during all our waking hours means we have more access to opportunities to practice this skill than do athletes or musicians requiring equipment, instruments or physical locations dedicated to practice.

(27)

Ann J. Cahill and Stephen Bloch-Schulman, “Argumentation Step-by- Step: Learning Critical Thinking through Deliberate Practice,” Teaching Philosophy 35, no. 1 (March 2012): 41-42.

(28)

For more on deLaplante’s mission and work, see https://kevindelaplante.com/about/.

(29)

Jennifer L. Kobrin et al., Examination of the Constructs Assessed by Published Tests of Critical Thinking, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education, Washington, DC, April 9–11, 2016, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301564949_Examin ing_the_Constructs_Assessed_by_Published_Tests_of_Critical_Thinking.

(30)

“The Gold Standard Critical Thinking Test, THINK Watson,” https://www.thinkwatson.com/assessments/watson-glaser.

(31)

Kevin Possin, “A Field Guide to Critical-Thinking Assessment,” Teaching Philosophy 31, no. 3 (September 2008): 201–228. In addition to providing valuable insights on the use of commercially developed critical-thinking assessments in the classroom, this paper includes an entertaining critique of the self-surveys used to evaluate critical-thinking ability.

(32)

Kobrin et al., Examination of the Constructs Assessed by Published Tests of Critical Thinking.

(33)

See Scott Barry Kaufman, “Intelligent Testing: The Evolving Landscape of iQ Testing,” Psychology Today, October 25, 2009, available at https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beautiful-minds/200910/intelligent-testing.

(34)

For details on the controversy surrounding the book, see Kevin Carey, “‘Academically Adrift’: The News Gets Worse and Worse,” Chronicle of Higher Education, February 12, 2012, https://www.chronicle.com/article/Academically-Adrift-The/130743.

(35)

See “About CLA+,” Council for Aid to Education, https://www.cae.org/flagship-assessments-cla-cwra/cla/about-cla/.

الفصل الرابع: أين نذهب من هنا؟

(1)

Stephen Jay Gould, “Evolution as Fact and Theory,” in Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1983), 254.

(2)

See the Next Generation Science Standards at https://www.nextgenscience.org/ and the College, Career and Civic Live (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards at https://www.socialstudies.org/c3.

(3)

Arthur Levine, “Educating School Teachers,” The Education Schools Project (2006), available at http://edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Exec_Summ.pdf.

(4)

For details on some of these challenges, see The Mirage: Confronting the Hard Truth About Our Quest for Teacher Development, The New Teacher Project (TNTP), August 4, 2015, available at https://tntp.org/assets/documents/TNTP-Mirage_2015.pdf.

(5)

Teachers Pay Teachers (https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/) is an online marketplace that provides access to several million teacher-developed educational resources for free or at low cost.