ملاحظات
A note on the notes: Because of the immense number of quotations and sources in need of citation, I have inserted endnotes at thematic breaks and transitions in the text.القوة والإيمان والخيال
مقدمة
(1)
Jared Sparks, The Life of John
Ledyard, the American
Traveller (Cambridge:
Hillard and Brown, 1828), pp. 1–70. Helen
Augur, Passage to
Glory: John Ledyard’s
America (Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1946), pp. 142, 157–58, 173.
Henry Beston, The
Book of Gallant Vagabonds
(New York: George H. Doran, 1925), p. 23.
Laurie Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage: An American
Adventurer on Captain James Cook’s
Final Expedition (New York:
Holiday House, 2002), p. 203 (“the
greatest traveler”). See also Clanance
Ashton Wood, “Southhold’s John Ledyard”
and “John Ledyard the Traveler,”
longislandgenealogy.com/Ledyard/one.htm.
(2)
John Ledyard, A Journal of Captain
Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific
Ocean (Hartford: Nathaniel
Patten, 1783), pp. 33 (“dancing through
life”), 72, 85, 157. Kenneth Munford,
John Ledyard:
An American Marco Polo
(Portland: Binfords and Mort, 1939), p.
300. Beston, Book
of Gallant Vagabonds, p.
43. James Zug, American Traveler (New
York: Basic, 2005), p. 152. Lawlor,
Magnificent
Voyage, pp. 5, 59, 143,
197-98. S. G. Mantel, Explorer with a Dream,
John Ledyard (New York:
Julian Messner, 1969), pp. 121–23. Thomas
Jefferson, Autobiography (New York:
Capricorn, 1959), p. 80. Lawlor, Magnificent
Voyage, p. 199 (“my
brother”). See also Stephen D. Watrous,
ed., John
Ledyard’s Journey through Russia and
Siberia, 1787-1788: The Journal and
Selected Letters (Madison:
Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1966), and the
website Mutual
Perceptions—Travel
Accounts, memory
.loc.gov/intldl/mtfhtml/mfpercep/perceptledyard.html.
(3)
Henry Beaufoy, “Some Accounts
of Mr. Ledyard’s Method of Traveling,”
Ladies’
Magazine, July 1792
(“manliness of his person”). Zug,
American
Traveler, p. 216 (“An
American face”). Larzer Ziff, Return Passages: Great
American Travel Writing,
1780–1910 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press,
2000), p. 36. Sparks, Life of John
Ledyard, pp. 290, 293 (“My
path will be”), p. 303. Augur, Passage to
Glory, p. 268 (“Behold, I
afford a new character”). Zug, American
Traveler, pp. 173 (“I … do
not think”), 220.
الباب الأول: أمريكا في أيامها الأولى تواجه الشرق الأوسط
الفصل الأول: تهديدٌ قاتلٌ ومخزٍ
(1)
Evan Thomas, John Paul Jones: Sailor,
Hero, Father of the American
Navy (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2003), pp. 30–34. James
A. Field Jr., America and the Mediterranean World,
1776–1882 (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1969), pp. 30-31.
A. L. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria,
1800–1901 (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1966), pp. 1-2. Michael
L. S. Kitzen, Tripoli and the United States at War:
A History of America’s Relations with
the Barbary States,
1785–1805 (Jefferson:
McFarland, 1962), p. 10. Thomas A. Bryson,
American
Diplomatic Relations with the Middle
East, 1784–1975 (Metuchen,
N.J.: Scarecrow, 1977), pp. 1-2. David H.
Finnie, Pioneers
East: The Early American Experience in
the Middle East (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 244-45
(“Go where you will”). A. Uner
Turgay, “Ottoman-American Trade during the
Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Ottoman
Studies 3, no. 1 (1982):
193-94.
(2)
Richard B. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary: A
Diplomatic History
(Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida,
2004), pp. 5-6, 17–20. Robert Davis,
Christian
Slaves, Muslim Masters (New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 4-5,
23, 36, 41-42, 74. Sir Godfrey Fisher,
Barbary
Legend: War, Trade and Policy in North
Africa, 1415–1830 (Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1957), pp. 290-91. Max
Boot, The Savage
Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise
of American Power (New
York: Basic, 2002), pp. 6–8. Maria Martin,
History of the
Captivity and Sufferings of Maria
Martin (Philadelphia: Jacob
Meyer, 1811), p. 37. Questions have been
raised about the veracity of Martin’s
account, though her descriptions of the
ordeals of captivity in North Africa
accord with those of many other former
prisoners. See James R. Lewis, “Savages of
the Seas: Barbary Captivity Tales and
Images of Muslims in the Early Republic,”
Journal of
American Culture 13, no. 2
(Summer 1990): 68.
(3)
Joseph Wheelan, Jefferson’s War:
America’s First War on Terror,
1801–1805 (New York:
Carroll & Graf, 2003), p. 36.
Parker, Uncle Sam
in Barbary, pp. 33-34 (“We
had already lost five”). Charles A.
Goodwin, Narrative
of Joshua Gee of Boston, Mass., While
He Was Captive in Algeria of the
Barbary Pirates, 1680–1687
(Hartford: Wadsworth Atheneum, 1943), pp.
1–29. Simon Smith, “Piracy in Early
British America,” History Today 46 (May
1996).
(4)
Letters of Delegates to Congress,
1774–1789, ed. Paul
Smith (Washington, D.C.: Library of
Congress, 1995): Pierse Long to John
Langdon, Aug. 6, 1786, p. 433.
Alexander DeConde, A History of American
Foreign Policy (New
York: Scribner, 1971), pp. 21, 41
(“The Americans cannot protect”).
The
Revolutionary War Diplomatic
Correspondences of the United
States. ed. Francis
Wharton (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1889):
Salva to Franklin, April 1, 1783, p.
357. Bradford Perkins, The Cambridge History
of American Foreign
Relations, vol. 1,
The
Creation of a Republican Empire,
1776–1865 (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), pp. 33
(“No nation can be trusted”), 46, 69.
Robert J. Allison, The Crescent
Obscured: The United States and the
Muslim World, 1776–1815
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995),
p. 3.
(5)
E. Dupuy, Américains et
Barbaresques (Paris: R.
Roger et F. Chernoviz, 1910), p. 8
(“to use its best offices”). The Writings of
Benjamin Franklin, vol.
10, ed. Albert Smyth (New York:
Haskell House, 1970): Franklin to
Robert Livingston, July 7, 1783, p. 71
(“If there were no Algiers”). See also
The Papers of
George Mason, 1725–1792,
ed. Robert Rutland (Chapel Hill: Univ.
of North Carolina Press, 1970): George
Mason to Hunter, Allison and Company,
Aug. 8, 1783, pp. 788-89. Louis B.
Wright and Julia H. Macleod, The First Americans
in North Africa: William Eaton’s
Struggle for a Vigorous Policy
against the Barbary Pirates,
1799–1805 (New York:
Greenwood, 1945), p. 15. Seton
Dearden, A
Nest of Corsairs
(London: Butler and Tanner, 1976), p.
151. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary,
pp. 218-19 (“there is no
advantage”).
(6)
Paul Baepler, ed.,
White
Slaves, African Masters: An
Anthology of American Barbary
Captivity Narratives
(Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press,
1999), pp. 77–80. Stephen Clissold,
The Barbary
Slaves (London: Paul
Elek, 1977), p. 3 (“They made signs”).
A. B. C. Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli: The Birth of the U.S. Navy
and Marines (New York:
Morrow, 1991), p. 26. H. G. Barnby,
The
Prisoners of Algiers: An Account of
the Forgotten American-Algerian
War, 1785–1797 (New
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966), pp.
2-3. Gardner W. Allen, Our Navy and the
Barbary Corsairs
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1905), pp.
8-9 (“sabers grasped”). Donald Barr
Chidsey, The
Wars in Barbary: Arab Piracy and
the Birth of the United States
Navy (New York: Crown,
1971), p. 7.
(7)
The Letters of Richard Henry
Lee, ed. James Ballagh
(New York: Macmillan, 1914), vol. 2:
Lee to Thomas Shippen, Oct. 14, 1785,
p. 392 (“Curse and doubly curse”); Lee
to Samuel Adams, Oct. 17, 1785, p.
396. John Jay Papers: 1968, 13031, Jay
to William Bingham, Feb. 12, 1785; Jay
to Bowen, May 24, 1786. Naval Documents
Related to the United States Wars
with the Barbary Powers,
ed. Dudley Knox, 6 vols. (Washington,
D.C.: GPO, 1939), vol. 1: O’Brien,
Coffin, and Stevens to Thomas
Jefferson, June 8, 1786, p. 2. David
McCullough, John Adams (New York:
Simon & Schuster, 2001), p.
352. Barnby, Prisoners of Algiers,
pp. 3–9, 25-26. Allison, Crescent
Obscured, pp. xiv–xv.
Allen, Our
Navy, pp. 13, 25, 21-22
(“perfectly dark”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, pp. 25-26, 69.
A Journal
of the Captivity and Sufferings of
John Foss (Newburyport:
Angier March, 1798), pp. 17 (“Now I
have got you”), 20, 24, 33. DeConde,
History of
American Foreign Policy,
p. 41 (“It will not be”). Lawrence A.
Peskin, “The Lessons of Independence:
How the Algerian Crisis Shaped Early
American Identity,” Diplomatic
History 28, no. 3 (June
2004): 299-300 (“The ALgerians are
cruising”). Walter A. McDougall,
Promised
Land, Crusader State: The American
Encounter with the World
since 1776 (New York:
Mariner Books, 1997), p.
37.
(8)
The Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, ed. Paul Ford
(New York: Putnam, 1970): Jefferson to
James Monroe, Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10-11
(“We ought to begin”). Allen,
Our
Navy, p. 37 (“It will
procure us”). See also Thomas
Jefferson Papers: Gerard W. Gawalt,
“America and the Barbary Pirates: An
International Battle Against an
Unconventional Foe,” on
memory.loc.gov/ammem/mtjhtml/mtjprece.html
(“temper of my countrymen”). DeConde,
History of
American Foreign Policy,
p. 83 (“sink us under them” and “erect
and independent attitude”). Joseph J.
Ellis, American Sphinx. The Character of
Thomas Jefferson (New
York: Vintage, 1998), p. 26 (“combined
great depth”), and Founding Brothers:
The Revolutionary
Generation (New York:
Vintage, 2002), pp. 233–42, William M.
Fowler, Jack
Tars and Commodores: The American
Navy, 1783–1815 (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1984), p. 5. I am
aware of the controversy surrounding
Jefferson’s relationship with Sally
Hemmings; geneticists have determined
that Thomas Jefferson was almost
certainly the father of Hemming’s son,
Eston.
(9)
The Emerging Nation: A Documentary
History of the Foreign Relations of
the United States under the
Articles of Confederation,
1780–1789, vol. 2, ed.
Mary Giunta (Washington, D.C.:
National Historical Publications and
Records Commission, 1996): Thomas
Jefferson to James Monroe, Feb. 6,
1785, p. 543. The Papers of George
Washington, ed. W. W.
Abbit (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of
Virginia, 1995): Lafayette to
Washington, Jan. 13, 1787, p. 514.
Lafayette
in the Age of the American
Revolution, vol. 5, ed.
Stanley Idzerda and Robert Crout
(Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1983):
Lafayette to Adams, Jefferson, and
Franklin, April 8, 1785, p.
315.
(10)
Writings of
Thomas Jefferson, ed.
Ford: Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov.
11, 1783, pp. 10-11 (“The states must
see”). The
Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, ed. Andrew A.
Lipscomb (Washington, D.C.: Thomas
Jefferson Memorial Association, 1905):
Jefferson to John Page, Aug. 20, 1785,
p. 91 (“Honour as well as”). John Jay
Papers: Jay to Jefferson, Adams, and
Franklin, March 11, 1785 (“the
Influence of … Courts”). Whipple,
To the
Shores of Tripoli, p.
23.
(11)
Writings of
Thomas Jefferson, ed.
Lipscomb: Jefferson to William
Carmichael, Nov. 4, 1785, p. 194 (“His
manners and appearance”). Barnby,
Prisoners
of Algiers, p. 75 (“I
hope never to see”). Parker, Uncle Sam in
Barbary, pp. 37-38,
217–19. Ray Irwin, The Diplomatic
Relations of the United States with
the Barbary Powers,
1776–1816 (New York: Russell &
Russell, 1970), pp.
49-50.
(12)
Emerging
Nation, vol. 1: John
Adams to John Jay, Feb. 17, 1786, p.
96. The John Jay Papers: 4605, Jay to
Congress, Aug. 2, 1787. Walter
Livingston Wright, “American Relations
with Turkey to 1831” (Ph.D. diss.,
Princeton Univ., 1928), pp. 1-2
(“pestilence and war”). Allison,
Crescent
Obscured, pp. 8, 14–16.
McCullough, John Adams, pp. 352-53.
Allen, Our
Navy, pp.
36-37.
(13)
Wright, “American
Relations with Turkey,” pp. 4-5 (“the
Dignity of Congress”). The Adams-Jefferson
Letters: The Complete
Correspondence between Thomas
Jefferson and Abigail and John
Adams, ed. Lester J.
Cappon (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North
Carolina Press, 1959): Adams to
Jefferson, July 13, 1786, p. 139.
Emerging
Nation, vol. 1: Letter
from John Adams to John Jay, June 27,
1786, p. 207; vol. 2: John Adams to
John Jay, Dec. 15, 1784, p. 513
(“unfeeling tyrants”). McCullough,
John
Adams, p. 366 (“We ought
not to fight”).
(14)
Emerging
Nation, vol. 3:
Jefferson and Adams to John Jay, March
28, 1786, pp. 135-36 (“It was …
written”). Adams-Jefferson
Letters: Adams to
Jefferson, June 6, 1786, p. 133.
Writings of
Thomas Jefferson, ed.
Ford: Thomas Jefferson to James
Monroe, Aug. 11, 1786, pp. 264-65 (“an
angel sent on this business”).
Writings of
Benjamin Franklin:
Franklin to William Carmichael, March
22, 1785, pp. 301-2. McCullough,
John
Adams, p. 354. Wright,
“American Relations with Turkey,” pp.
7–10. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 30-31.
Allison, Crescent Obscured, p.
12 (“a universal and horrible
War”).
(15)
Revolutionary
War Diplomatic Correspondences of
the United States:
Franklin to Congress, May 26, 1779,
pp. 192-93. Diary and Autobiography of John
Adams, vol. 3, Diary
1782–1804 (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, Belknap Press,
1961), entries for March 19 and March
20, 1785, pp. 174-75. John Jay Papers:
3891, Jay to Congress, March 22, 1786.
Emerging
Nation, vol. 1: John
Adams to John Jay, Feb. 16, 1786
(“Innocence and the Olive Branch”), p.
95. Jerome B. Weiner, “Foundations of
U.S. Relations with Morocco and the
Barbary States,” Hespris-Tamuda
[Morocco] 20-21
(1982-83), pp. 165–82. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 32-33, 40. Allen, Our Navy,
pp. 27–30. Wright, “American Relations
with Turkey,” pp. 8-9. The text of the
treaty is reproduced in J. C.
Hurewitz, ed., The Middle East and North Africa
in World Politics: A Documentary
Record, vol. 1,
European
Expansion, 1535–1914, 2d
ed. (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press,
1975), pp.
103–5.
(16)
The Writings of
Thomas Jefferson:
Jefferson to Humphreys, Aug. 14,
1786, p. 400 (“public treasury”).
The
Writings of George Washington from
the Original Manuscript Sources,
1745–1799, vol. 38, ed.
John Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C.:
GPO, 1938): Washington to
Lafayette, March 25, 1787, p. 185
(“the highest disgrace”);
Washington to Lafayette, Aug. 15,
1786, p. 521 (“Would to Heaven”).
Whipple, To
the Shores of Tripoli,
p. 21. Boot, Savage Wars of
Peace, p. 10. U.S. Naval
History: The Reestablishment of the Navy,
1787–1801, on
http://www.history.navy.mil/biblio/bibli04/bibli04a.htm.
The
Documentary History of the
Ratification of the
Constitution, ed. John
Kaminksi and Gaspare Saladino
(Madison: State Historical Society
of Wisconsin, 2001): Russell to
Adams, p. 47 (“Without a national
system”). Parker, Uncle Sam in
Barbary, p. 44 (“Our
sufferings”). Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
33 (“See what dark
prospect”).
(17)
Documentary
History of the Ratification of the
Constitution: Speech by
James Madison before the Virginia
Constitutional Convention, June 12,
1788, p. 1206. Writings of George
Washington: Washington
to Lafayette, Aug. 15, 1787, p. 260.
Letters of
Delegates to Congress:
Virginia Delegates to Edmund Randolph,
Nov. 3, 1787, p. 539. James Madison,
Notes of
Debates in the Federal Convention
of 1787 (Athens: Ohio
Univ. Press, 1966), p. 549. Perkins,
Cambridge
History of American Foreign
Relations, p. 69. See
also Julia H. Macleod, “Jefferson and
the Navy: A Defense,” Huntington Library
Quarterly 8 (Feb. 1945):
154.
(18)
Documentary
History of the Ratification of the
Constitution, pp. 47,
160, 567 (“preposterous”), 1126 (“May
not the Algerines”), 1417 (“our
sailors … in Algiers”). The Debate on the
Constitution, ed.
Bernard Bailyn (Washington, D.C.:
Library of America, 1993): Hugh
Williamson’s Speech, Nov. 8, 1787, p.
233. The
Republic of Letters: The
Correspondence between Thomas
Jefferson and James Madison,
1776–1826, ed. James
Morton Smith (New York: Norton, 1995):
Jefferson to Madison, May 8, 1784, p.
314; Madison to Jefferson, Oct. 8,
1788, p. 555; Jefferson to Madison,
Jan. 12, 1789, p.
583.
(19)
Alexander Hamilton, John
Jay and James Madison, The Federalist
Papers (Cutchogue, N.Y.:
Buccaneer Books, 1992), pp. 49-50
(“federal navy … of respectable”),
207-8 (“maritime strength” and “the
rapacious demands”). John Jay Papers:
4572, Jay to Congress, May 29, 1786;
10876, Jay to Lafayette, Oct. 28,
1786; 4605, Jay to Congress, Aug. 2,
1787. Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History
of the American People
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1980), p. 65 (“The more
we are ill-treated”). See also George
Pellew, American Statesmen: John
Jay (Cambridge, Mass.:
Riverside Press, 1890), p.
239.
(20)
Mary Chrysostom Diebels,
Peter
Markoe (1752–1792): A Philadelphia
Writer (Washington,
D.C.: Catholic Univ. of America Press,
1944), pp. 1–3, 16, 50–61. Peter
Markoe, The
Algerine Spy in Pennsylvania; or,
Letters Written by a Native of
Algiers on the Affairs of the
United States in America, from the
Close of the Year 1783 to the
Meeting of the
Convention
(Philadelphia: Prichard and Hall,
1787), pp. 25–30, 78-79, 104-5
(“totally ruined” and “plundered
without”), 113-14. Bailey, Diplomatic History of
the American People, p.
65. See also Lotfi Ben Rejeb,
“Observing the Birth of a Nation: The
Oriental Spy/Observer Genre and Nation
Making in Early American Literature,”
in Abbas Amanat and Magnus T.
Bernhardsson, eds., The United States and
the Middle East: Cultural
Encounters (New Haven:
Yale Center for International and Area
Studies, 2002), pp.
253–89.
(21)
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 1:
Jefferson to the Senate and the House
of Representatives, Dec. 30, 1790, p.
22; Edward Church to Thomas Jefferson,
Oct. 12, 1793, p. 45. Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, ed.
Lips-comb: Jefferson to the Board of
Treasury, May 16, 1788, p. 11
(“sea-dogs”); Jefferson to John Jay,
Aug. 11, 1788, p. 121 (“that
pettifogging nest”). Ellis, American
Sphinx, p. 162
(“Algerine”). Allison, Crescent
Obscured, pp. 9-10
(“suspended between
indignation”).
(22)
Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb:
Jefferson to John Paul Jones, June 1,
1792, p. 355; Jefferson to Thomas
Barclay, June 11, 1792, p. 367.
Charles Stuart Kennedy, The American Consul:
A History of the United States
Consular Service,
1776–1914 (New York:
Greenwood, 1990), p. 29 (“as a great
People”). Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, ed. Paul
Ford: Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov.
11, 1783, pp. 10-11 (“John Paul
Jones”).
(23)
Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb:
Jefferson to Thomas Barclay, June 11,
1792, p. 367. John Jay Papers: 5052,
Temple to Jay, June 7, 1786. The Papers of
Alexander Hamilton, ed.
Harold Syrett, 27 vols. (New York:
Columbia Univ. Press, 1961–87):
Hamilton to William Seton, April 22,
1794, vol. 16, p. 312. The Life and
Correspondence of Rufus
King, ed. Charles King
(New York: Putnam, 1894): John Alsop
to Rufus King, Dec. 15, 1793, p. 505.
Irwin, Diplomatic Relations of the United
States, p.
80.
(24)
Writings of George
Washington, vol. 33:
Washington to Jonathan Trumbull, Aug.
20, 1793, p. 125; President’s Sixth
Annual Address to Congress, Dec. 13,
1793, p. 166 (“If we
desire”).
(25)
Annals of the Congress of the
United States: Third
Congress (Washington,
D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 1849), pp.
433, 434 (“Bribery alone,” “a
Secretary of [the] Navy,” and “we are
no match”), 436 (“Our commerce is”),
439 (“at war with”), 447-48
(“pusillanimous measures”). Craig L.
Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists: The
Naval Policy Debate in the United
States, 1785–1827
(Newark: Univ. of Delaware Press,
1980), pp. 27–37. See also The Papers of Josiah
Bartlett, ed. Frank
Mevers (Hanover: Univ. Press of New
England, 1979): Paine Wingate to
Josiah Bartlett, Feb. 24, 1794, p.
403.
(26)
Papers of Alexander
Hamilton: John Quincy
Adams to Hamilton, Dec. 5, 1795, vol.
17, pp. 420-21; Edmund Randolph to
Hamilton, William Bradford, and Henry
Knox, vol. 16, pp. 498-99. Naval Documents
Related to the United States
Wars, vol. 1: Samuel
Calder to David Pearce, Dec. 4, 1793,
p. 57; George Washington to Congress,
Feb. 8, 1795, p. 93; Joel Barlow to
Jefferson, March 18, 1796, pp. 140-41.
Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp.
31, 141 (“stigma on the American”).
Frances Diane Robotti and James
Vescovi, The
USS Essex and the Birth of the
American Navy (Holbrook,
Mass.: Adams Media Corp., 1999), p.
12. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, p. 7. Allen,
Our
Navy, p. 51 (“If I were
to make
peace”).
(27)
Among the gifts given
Tunis by the United States were “1
Fusee, 6 feet long, mounted with gold
set with diamonds; 4 set with gold
mounting, ordinary length; 1 pr. of
pistols mounted with gold, set with
diamonds; 1 poniard, enameled, set
with diamonds; 1 diamond ring; 1 gold
repeating watch, with diamonds, chain
the same, 6 pieces of brocade of gold;
30 pieces superfine cloth of different
colors; 6 pieces Satin, different
colors.” See Irwin, Diplomatic Relations
of the United States,
pp. 100-1. Republic of Letters:
Madison to Jefferson, Feb. 21, 1796,
pp. 921-22; Jefferson to Madison,
April 17, 1796, pp. 931-32. Naval Documents
Related to the United States
Wars, vol. 1: Barlow to
Jefferson, March 18, 1796, pp. 140-41;
O’Brien to Jefferson, Jan. 12, 1797,
pp. 192-93 (“25 chests of tea”);
Barlow to Jefferson, Aug. 18, 1797, p.
208 (“To what height”); Barlow to
Jefferson, Aug. 24, 1797, p. 209 (“You
are a liar”). Kennedy, American
Consul, pp. 30–32.
Allen, Our
Navy, pp. 23-24, 53-54
(“Our people have conducted”), 56-57.
Barnby, Prisoner of Algiers,
pp. 304, 318. Foss, Journal of the
Captivity, p. 123 (“No
nation of Christendom”). Milton
Cantor, “Joel Barlow’s Mission to
Algiers,” Historian 25 (1963).
See also Library of Congress Country
Studies, “Algeria, Relations with the
United States,”
memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+dz0025).
(28)
Royall Tyler,
The
Algerine Captive; or, The Life and
Adventures of Doctor Updike
Underhill, Six Years a Prisoner
among the Algerines
(Hartford: Peter B. Gleason, 1816),
pp. 196, 239. Anonymous, The American in
Algiers; or, The Patriot of
Seventy-six in Captivity
(New York: J. Buel, 1797), p. 16
(“Does Columbia”). Susanna Rowson,
Slaves in
Algiers; or, The Struggle for
Freedom (Philadelphia:
Wrigley and Berriman, 1794), p. 48
(“What, give it
up”).
(29)
James Leander Cathcart,
Tripoli (LaPorte, Ind.:
Herald Print, 1901): Cathcart to
Pickering, Aug. 16, 1799, p. 67.
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 1:
Barlow to Jefferson, Aug. 24, 1797, p.
209. Kennedy, American Consul, pp.
2-3.
الفصل الثاني: الشرق الغامض والعداء
(1)
George Sandys, Description of the
Ottoman Empire
(Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,
1973), p. 36. Philip L. Barbour,
The Three
Worlds of Captain John
Smith (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1964), pp. 45–49. Timothy
Worthington Marr, “Imagining Ishmael:
Studies of Islamic Orientalism from
the Puritans to Melville” (Ph.D.
diss., Yale Univ., 1997), pp. 1-2,
30–33, 70 (“an emissary of Satan”),
87–89. Douglas Little, American Orientalism:
The United States and the Middle
East since 1945 (Chapel
Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press,
2002), pp. 12-13, 73-74. Allison,
Crescent
Obscured, pp. xiv-xviii,
45-46, 61–64. Josiah Strong,
“Anglo-Saxon Predominance (1891),”
http://xroads.virginia.edu/∽DRBR/strong.html
(“The Eastern nations sink”).
Translating
the Untranslatable: A Survey of
English Translations of the
Quran,
http://www.quranicstudies.com/article32.html.
A. J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted
(New York: Macmillan, 1955), pp. 7
(“so viewing thine enemies”), 8
(“contradictions, blasphemies”), 10
(“attack the Koran”). Humphrey
Prideaux, The
True Nature of Imposture Fully
Displayed in the Life of
Mahomet (Fairhaven, Vt.:
James Lyon, 1798), p.
108.
(2)
Henry Hugh Brackenridge
and Philip Freneau, Father Bombo’s
Pilgrimage to Mecca,
1770, ed. Michael Davitt Bell
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Library,
1975), pp. 7 (“to change thy
religion”), 92 (“I prostrated
myself”). Ros Ballaster, Fabulous Orients:
Fictions of the East in
England, 1662–1785
(Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005),
pp. 8, 33, 54–56, 72, 77. Alain
Grosrichard, The Sultan’s Court: European
Fantasies of the East
(London: Verso, 1998), p. 79. Mohammed
Sharafuddin, Islam and Romantic Orientalism:
Literary Encounters with the
Orient (London: I. B.
Tauris, 1994), pp. xxv–xxvi, 64, 107.
Ben Rejeb, “Observing the Birth of a
Nation,” pp. 256-57. Claude Étienne
Savary, Letters on Egypt, Containing a
Parallel between the Manners of Its
Ancient and Modern
Inhabitants (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787).
Constantin-François Volney, Voyage en Syrie et en
Egypte, pendant les années 1783,
1784, et 1785 (Paris:
Desenne et Volland,
1787).
(3)
Daniel Beaumont,
Slave of
Desire: Sex, Love and Death in
1,001 Nights (Madison,
N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ.
Press, 2002), p. 42. Husain
Haddawy, trans., The Arabian
Nights (New York:
Norton, 1990), pp. xv–xvii.
Novelists
Magazine 18 (Containing
The Arabian
Nights Entertainment)
(London: Harrison, 1785). Adele L.
Younis, “The Arabs Who Followed
Columbus,” Arab World 12, no. 3
(March 1966). Excerpt from
The Arabian
Night Entertainment: Consisting of
One Thousand and One Stories, the
First American Edition, Freely
Transcribed from the Original
Translation by Galland
(Baltimore: H. & P. Rice and
J. Rice, 1794). Susan Nance,
“Crossing Over: A Cultural History
of American Engagement with the
Muslim World, 1830–1940” (Ph.D.
diss., Univ. of California,
Berkeley, 2003), p. 25. See also
the Arabian
Nights Resource Center,
http://www.crock11.freeserve.co.uk/arabian.htm.
(4)
Alexis de Tocqueville,
Democracy
in America, ed. J. P.
Mayer, trans. George Lawrence (New
York: Harper & Row, 1969), p.
536. Edward McNall Burns, The American Idea of
Mission: Concepts of National
Purpose and Destiny (New
Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1957),
p. 125. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The
National Experience (New
York: Random House, 1965), pp. 219,
264. William H. Goetzmann, New Lands, New Men:
America and the Second Great Age of
Discovery (New York:
Viking, 1986), pp. 1, 5, 14. Frederick
Jackson Turner, The Frontier in
American History (1920;
reprint, New York: Henry Holt, 1947),
pp. 2, 30, 37,
38.
(5)
Sparks, Life of John
Ledyard, p. 305
(“Alexandria at large”). P. J.
Vatikiotis, The History of Egypt: From
Muhammad Ali to Sadat
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press,
1980), pp. 30–38. Samir Khalaf,
Persistence
and Change in 19th Century
Lebanon (Beirut:
American Univ. of Beirut, 1979), pp.
16–31. Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of
Modern Turkey (London:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 21–39,
and The Crisis
of Islam: Holy War and Unholy
Terror (New York: Modern
Library, 2003), pp.
64-65.
(6)
Augur, Passage to
Glory, pp. 265, 276
(“The Mahometans [are] a
superstitious”), 277–80. Zug,
American
Traveler, p. 222
(“infinitely below”). Sparks,
Life of
John Ledyard, pp. 306,
307 (“This was about” and “nothing
merits more”), 309, 310 (“very, very
humiliating”), 314-15. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 139-40 (“dust,
hot”). See also Robert D. Kaplan,
The
Arabists: The Romance of an
American Elite (New
York: Free Press, 1993), pp.
16-17.
(7)
Finnie, Pioneers
East, p. 140 (“a bilious
complaint”). Wood, “John Ledyard the
Traveler,” (“full and perfect
health”). Significant disagreement
surrounds the date of Ledyard’s death.
Augur places it on March 4, 1789, and
Dr. Wood on Jan. 17. Sparks, the
official biographer, speculates that
the time was late Nov. 1788 On the
basis of Ledyard’s last letter to
Jefferson, I have remained with
Sparks’s date, albeit without
certainty.
(8)
“An Egyptian Anecdote,”
Ladies’
Magazine, April 1793
(“although generally tender”); “An
Account of Egypt and Alexandria,” Feb.
1793 (“absorbed in surprise”). Augur,
Passage to
Glory, p. 282 (“That
Man”). J. Fred Rippy, Joel R. Poinsett:
Versatile American
(Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1935), pp.
27–29. Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 14
(“long red pantaloons”). George
Barrell, Letters from Asia: Written by a
Gentleman of Boston, to His Friend
in That Place (New York:
A. T. Goodrich, 1819), p. 35 (“having
perused”). Bruce G. Tigger,
“Egyprology, Ancient Egypt and the
American Imagination,” in Nancy
Thomas, ed., The American Discovery of Ancient
Egypt (New York: Abrams,
1995), pp. 21-22. Thomas Jefferson,
The
Writings of Thomas
Jefferson, vol. 7
(Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson
Memorial Association of the United
States, 1903), p. 78. Ziff, Return
Passages, p. 53
(“Ledyard was a great
favourite”).
الفصل الثالث: بوتقة الهوية الأمريكية
(1)
Thomas Harris, The Life and Services of
Commodore William Bainbridge, United
States Navy (Philadelphia:
Carey Lea and Blanchard, 1837), pp. 37, 45
(“You pay me tribute”). Robotti and
Vescovi, USS
Essex, pp. 70–72. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 48–50. Whipple,
To the Shores
of Tripoli, p. 56. Allen,
Our
Navy, pp. 75, 80-81.
Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,”
pp. 31 (“To save the peace), 32-33
(“mortifying degradations”), 35-36.
Richard Zacks, The
Pirate Coast; Thomas Jefferson, the
First Marines, and the Secret Mission
of 1805 (New York:
Hyperion, 2005), pp. 13–15, 24.
(2)
Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries:
The Rise and Fall of the Turkish
Empire (New York: Morrow
Quill, 1977), pp. 429–36. Stanford Shaw,
History of the
Ottoman Empire and Modern
Turkey, vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis: The
Rise and Decline of the Ottoman
Empire, 1280–1808
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976),
pp. 260–74. Henry A. S. Dearborn,
The Life of
William Bainbridge, Esq., of the
United States Navy
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1931),
p. 20. Barnby, Prisoner of Algiers, pp.
37, 84. Henry S. Osborn, Palestine, Past and
Present (Philadelphia:
James Challen and Son, 1859), p. 505.
Field, America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 114-15. Lewis, Crisis of Islam, p. 66
(“heavenly bodies”). Turgay,
“Ottoman-American Trade,” p.
205.
(3)
Glenn Tucker, Dawn like Thunder: The
Barbary Wars and the Birth of the U.S.
Navy (New York:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), pp. 15–18. Wright,
“American Relations with Turkey,” pp.
31-32 (“Had we 10 or 12”), 34 (“Did the
United States know”), 37–41, 42
(“Capitaines Vilon”). Allen, Our Navy, pp.
85-86. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 115-16.
Bainbridge letter to Stodder, in Robotti
and Vescovi, USS
Essex, p. 76. Harris,
Life and
Services of Commodore William
Bainbridge, p.
60.
(4)
Republic of Letters:
Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 28, 1801,
pp. 1193-94 (“enemy to all these” and
“send the powder”). Thomas Jefferson
Papers: Jefferson to Wilson Cary
Nicholas, June 11, 1801 (“There is no
end”). The
Writings of Albert
Gallatin, ed. Henry
Adams, vol. 1 (New York: Antiquarian
Press, 1960): Gallatin to Jefferson,
Dec. 1802, pp. 104-5. Kenneth J.
Hagan, This
People’s Navy: The Making of
American Sea Power (New
York: Free Press, 1991), p. 55
(“deeply affected”). Naval Documents
Related to the United States
Wars, vol. 1: Cathcart
to Date, Sept. 17, 1801, Cathcart to
Madison, April 18, 1802, p. 127 (“to
buy peace”).
(5)
Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
49 (“sinking, burning”). Herbert E.
Klingelhofer, “Abolish the Navy!”
Manuscripts 33, no. 4
(Fall 1981): 279–83. Macleod,
“Jefferson and the Navy,” p. 170.
Allen, Our
Navy, pp. 89-90 (“a
delay on your part”), 94, 112-13.
Wright, “American Relations with
Turkey,” pp. 31–36. Dumas Malone,
Jefferson
the President: First Term,
1801–1805 (Boston:
little, Brown, 1970), p.
98.
(6)
The Enterprise
was commanded by Lt. Andrew Sterrett.
See Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 1:
National Intelligencer, Nov. 18, 1801,
p. 539. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 89–91,
92-93, 97–101. Robotti and Vescovi,
USS
Essex, pp. 78-79, 91–93.
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 1:
Dale to Cathcart, Aug. 25, 1801, p.
560 (“amuse”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, p. 79. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
p. 49. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace,
pp. 13-14.
(7)
Naval Documents Related to the
United States Wars, vol.
1: Dale to the Acting Secretary of the
Navy, July 30, 1801, p. 535 (“the
whole tribe”). Circular Letters of Congressmen to
Their Constituents,
1789–1829, ed. Noble
Cunningham (Chapel Hill: Univ. of
North Carolina Press, 1978), vol. 1:
Letter from John Stratton, April 22,
1802, p. 281. Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, p. 96 (“Shall
we buy”). For a fuller discussion of
the constitutional aspects of
Jefferson’s policy toward North
Africa, see Robert F. Turner, “The War
on Terrorism and the Modern Relevance
of the Congressional Power to “Declare
War,” Harvard
Journal of Law & Public
Policy 25 (2002). See
also Gordon Silverstein, Imbalance of Powers:
Constitutional Interpretation and
the Making of American Foreign
Policy (Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1997), and David N.
Mayer, “By the Chains of the
Constitution: Separation of Powers
Theory and Jefferson’s Conception of
the Presidency,” Perspectives on
Political Science 26
(1997).
(8)
Republic of Letters:
Madison to Jefferson, March 17, 1802,
p. 1265; Jefferson to Madison, March
22, 1802, p. 1267; Madison to
Jefferson, July 22, 1802, p. 1231.
Allen, Our
Navy, pp. 89–93, 109-10,
130-31. Thomas Jefferson Papers:
Jefferson to Albert Gallatin, March
28, 1803. Naval Documents Related to the
United States Wars, vol.
2: Murray to Captain Richard Morris,
Aug. 20, 1802, p. 242; Excerpt from
the Journal of Henry Wadsworth, Feb.
26, 1803, p. 437 (“Twas good sport”);
vol. 3: Captain Murray to Congressman
Joseph Nicholson, Nov. 5, 1803, p.
201. Cathcart, Tripoli, p. 111 (“venal
wretch”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, pp. 88, 90, 99.
Boot, Savage
Wars of Peace, pp. 14-15
(“best
exertions”).
(9)
The Republic of
Letters: Madison to
Jefferson, July 22, 1802, p. 1231;
Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 17, 1802,
p. 1264; Jefferson to Madison, March
19, 1803, p. 1266. Life and
Correspondence of Rufus
King: King to Madison,
July 19, 1802, p. 149 (“Our
security”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, pp. 65 (“rest
the safety”), 113. Naval Documents
Related to the United States
Wars, vol. 3: Preble to
the Secretary of the Navy, Sept. 22,
1803, p. 70 (“The Moors”); Preble to
Cathcart, March 18, 1804, p. 501.
Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex,
pp. 112-13 (“his savage
highness”).
(10)
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 3:
Bainbridge to James Simpson, Aug. 29,
1803 (“I sincerely hope”); John
Ridgeley to Susan Decatur, Nov. 10,
1826, p. 425. Robotti and Vescovi,
USS
Essex, p. 100. Whipple,
To the
Shores of Tripoli, pp.
114, 121. Allen, Our Navy,
pp. 147-48 (“It is with deep regret”),
152-53, 164-65. Zacks, Pirate
Coast, p. 48 (“Gift of
Allah”). Harris, Life and Services of
Commodore William
Bainbridge, pp. 81, 92.
Mohamed El Mansour, “The Anachronism
of Maritime Jihad: The U.S.-Moroccan
Conflict of 1802-1803,” in Jerome
Bookin-Weiner and Mohamed El Mansour,
eds., The
Atlantic Connection: 200 Years of
Moroccan-American Relations,
1786–1986 (Rabat: Edino
Press, 1990).
(11)
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 3:
Preble to the Secretary of the Navy,
Dec. 10, 1803, pp. 256-57 (“Would to
God”). James Tertius De Kay, A Rage for Glory: The
Life of Commodore Stephen
Decatur (New York: Free
Press, 2004), pp. 38 (“We are now
about”), 56. Allen, Our Navy,
pp. 157, 160–73 (“The flames …
ascending”). Robotti and Vescovi,
USS
Essex, p. 102. Whipple,
To the
Shores of Tripoli, pp.
121, 123, 136. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
60.
(12)
MML: William Eaton,
Interesting
Detail of the Operations of the
American Fleet in the
Mediterranean, Communicated in a
Letter from W. E. Esq. to His
Friend in the County of
Hampshire (Springfield,
Mass.: Bliss & Brewer, 1804),
p. 7 (“bayonet, spear”). De Kay,
Rage for
Glory, p. 67 (“Some of
the Turks”). Allen, Our Navy,
pp. 181–85, 192–94, 214, 217.
Niles’
Weekly Register, March
7, 1812, p. 12 (“done more for the
cause”). Robotti and Vescovi,
USS
Essex, pp. 78-79, 91–93.
Whipple, To
the Shores of Tripoli,
pp. 142, 156. Harris, Life and Services of
Commodore William
Bainbridge, p. 116.
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, p. 60 (“The most
bold”). Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 3:
Preble to the Secretary of the Navy,
Feb. 19, 1804, p. 439 (“spend [his]
life”); John Hall to William Burrows,
Dec. 7, 1803, p. 254 (“eight oz. of
bread); vol. 4: Preble to the
Secretary of the Navy, Sept. 18, 1804,
p. 301 (“I cannot but regret”).
Jonathan Cowdery, American Captives in
Tripoli (Boston: Belcher
& Armstrong, 1806), pp. 13, 17
(“Such attempts
served”).
(13)
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 4:
Diary of Surgeon Jonathan Cowdery,
entry for Aug. 10, 1804, pp. 64-65.
Thomas A. Bryson, Tars, Turks, and
Tankers: The Role of the United
States Navy in the Middle East,
1800–1979 (London:
Scarecrow, 1980), p. 14. Allen,
Our
Navy, pp. 176-77, 203–9,
217-18. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace,
p. 22 (“like so many planets”).
Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex,
p. 123. Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, pp. 149, 172,
221 (“You have done
well”).
(14)
Writings of
Albert Gallatin:
Gallatin to Jefferson, Aug. 16, 1802,
pp. 88-89; Gallatin to Jefferson Jan.
18, 1803, 116. Republic of Letters:
Jefferson to Madison, April 27, 1804,
pp. 1324-25 (“the most serious one,”
“begging alms,” and “beat … [the
Algerians’] town”). Thomas Jefferson
Papers, Princeton Univ.: Jefferson to
Robert Smith, April 27, 1804. Allen,
Our
Navy, p. 197. Naval Documents
Related to the United States
Wars, vol. 1: Cathcart
to Dale, Sept. 17, 1801, p. 572;
Cathcart to Madison, April 18, 1802,
p. 127. Nathan Schachner, Thomas Jefferson: A
Biography (New York:
Thomas Yoseloff, 1951), pp.
685-86.
(15)
William Eaton Papers
(WEP) (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington
Library). Negociations of the United
States with the Kingdom of Tunis:
William Eaton [no recipient], Feb. 21,
1799, p. 37 (“No man will”); roll 1:
Eaton to Pynchon, Oct. 12, 1799 (“a
man not overly”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, pp. 177-78 (“a
great bulldog”). Kitzen, Tripoli and the
United States at War,
pp. 25-26. Wright and Macleod,
First
Americans in North
Africa, p. 19.
(16)
WEP, Negociations of the
United States with the Kingdom of
Tunis: Remarks &c made at
Algiers: Feb. 13, 1799, p. 28
(“Universal God”); William Eaton to
“Honorable Secretary of the United
States,” April, 1799, 117 (“land of
rapine,” “Genius of my country!” and
“There is but one”); Eaton to General
Smith, Aug. 19, 1802 (“Are we then”);
Continued Communications from Tunis in
Barbary: Eaton to Cathcart, Aug. 8,
1802, p. 237 (“[The] Government may as
well”). Zacks, Pirate Coast, p. 31 (“a
fiddle
bow”). Wright and
Macleod, First
Americans in North
Africa, pp. 20-21,
49-50. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 41-42. Allen,
Our
Navy, pp. 68-69.
Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp.
168, 177.
(17)
WEP, Negociations of the
United States with the Kingdom of
Tunis: Eaton to William Smith, Nov.
13, 1800 (“a cowardly Jew”); Eaton to
General Smith, Aug. 19, 1802; Madison
to Eaton, Aug. 22, 1802 (“zeal … and
calculations”); William Eaton Journal,
Sept. 4, 1804, p. 59 (“A whipt
Spaniel!”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, pp. 54, 94-95,
183. Eaton to William Smith, May 24,
1801 (“buy[ing] oil of
rose”).
(18)
Eaton, Interesting Detail of
the Operations, p. 29
(“sun-brown children”). See also R. C.
Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant,
1559–1853 (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1952), p. 405.
WEP, Continued Communications from
Tunis in Barbary: Eaton to the
Department of State, Sept. 5, 1801;
Eaton to Samuel Lyman, Oct. 12, 1801;
Eaton to Mr. James Uphorn, Aug. 11,
1802; Eaton to Hamet Dec. 14, 1804
(“God ordained”). Republic of
Letters: Jefferson to
Madison, Aug. 28, 1801, p. 1193.
Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex,
p. 88. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 57–66,
110–12, 187,
217.
(19)
Zacks, Pirate
Coast, pp. 184 “(Cash …
is the only”), 188. WEP, William Eaton
Journal, March 20, 1805, p. 20 (“o’er
burning sands”); William Eaton
Journal, March 30, 1805, p. 25 (“They
have no sense”); Negociations of the
United States with the Kingdom of
Tunis: Eaton to the Governor of Derne,
April 26, 1805 (“Let no difference”).
Allen, Our
Navy, pp. 229–32,
235–39, 243-44. Finnie, Pioneers
East, p. 258. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 53-54.
(20)
Republic of
Letters: Madison to
Jefferson, July 25, 1806, p. 1427;
Madison to Jefferson, July 28, 1806,
p. 1429; Madison to Jefferson, Sept.
4, 1806, p. 1438; Jefferson to
Madison, Sept. 16, 1806, p. 1439.
Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex,
p. 116. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, p. 55 (“Georgia,
a Greek”). Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, p. 253 (“so
unusually
honorable”).
(21)
Naval
Documents Related to the United
States Wars, vol. 2:
Madison to Lear, July 14, 1805, p.
485. WEP, Negociations of the United
States with the Kingdom of Tunis:
Eaton to the Secretary of State, May
7, 1800; Eaton to Mr. Appleton, Feb.
18, 1800 (“covered with blood”);
William Eaton to Corn. Rodgers, on
board the U.S. frigate Constellation,
off Derne: June 13, 1805 (“uttering
shrieks”). Zacks, Pirate
Coast, p. 175. Whipple,
To the
Shores of Tripoli, pp.
235–37, 239, 244, 253. Harris,
Life and
Services of Commodore William
Bainbridge, p.
123.
(22)
WEP, Hamet Bashaw
Caramali to Eaton, June 29, 1805;
Eaton to the President of the United
States, Feb. 12, 1808 (“Honor
recoils”). Republic of Letters:
Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 2, 1806,
pp. 1431-32. Allen, Our Navy,
pp. 252-53, 256 (“You have
acquired”).
(23)
Whipple, To the Shores of
Tripoli, p. 221. Thomas
Jefferson Papers: Jefferson’s Report
to Congress, Dec. 3,
1805.
(24)
Republic of Letters:
Jefferson to Madison, Sept. 1, 1807,
p. 1494 (“to secure peace”). Perkins,
Cambridge
History of American Foreign
Relations, pp. 145-46.
Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex,
pp. 145-46. Hurewitz, Middle East and North
Africa, p. 202. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
p. 57. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 277
(“Should our differences”), 279 (“My
policy”). An
Affecting Narrative of the
Captivity and Suffering of Thomas
Nicholson Who Has Been Six Years a
Prisoner among the
Algerines (Boston: N.
Coverly, 1818), pp. 5-6,
11.
(25)
Jonathan D. Sarna,
Jacksonian
Jew: The Two Worlds of Mordecai
Noah (New York: Holmes
& Meier, 1981), pp. 13–27, 28
(“It might be well”), 29–33. Isaac
Goldberg, Major Noah: American-Jewish
Frontier (Philadelphia:
Jewish Publication Society of America,
1936), pp. 76–80, 117–26. See also
Mordecai Manuel Noah, Correspondence and
Documents Relative to the Attempt
to Negotiate for the Release of the
American Captives at Algiers
Including Remarks on Our Relations
with that Regency
(Washington, D.C.: n.p., 1816).
“Judaic Treasures of the Library of
Congress: Mordecai Manuel Noah,”
http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/loc/noah.html.
For David Franks, see Frederick C.
Leiner, The
End of Barbary Terror: American’s
1815 War against the Pirates of
North Africa (Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press, 2006), p.
30.
(26)
Allen, Our Navy,
pp. 283-84, 286-87, 289 (“swept from
the seas “and “dictated from the
mouths”). Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
58 (“liberal and enlightened”). Boot,
Savage Wars
of Peace, pp. 27-28
(“powder as tribute”). Leiner,
End of
Barbary Terror, pp.
46-47, 68-69 (“serious disasters”).
William Shaler, Sketches of
Algiers (Boston:
Cummings, Hillard, 1826), pp. 38
(“worthless a power”), 101
(“Islamism”), 126-27, 167-68. For the
Madison-dey correspondence see
Hurewitz, Middle East and North
Africa, pp. 206-7. On
the personality and foreign policy
views of James Madison, see J. C. A.
Stagg, Mr.
Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy,
and Warfare in the Early American
Republic, 1783–1830
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press,
1983), p. 506. Drew R. McCloy,
The Last of
the Fathers: James Madison and the
Republican Legacy
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press,
1989), pp. 18, 22, 26. Robert A.
Rutland, The
Presidency of James
Madison (Lawrence: Univ.
Press of Kansas, 1990), pp. 2, 18–20,
25-26.
(27)
Niles’ Weekly
Register, April 15, 1815
(“The name of an American”); Oct.
15, 1815 (“energy which liberty”).
Marshall Smelser, The Democratic
Republic (New York:
Harper & Row, 1968), p. 60.
Boot, Savage Wars of Peace,
p. 28. Allison, Crescent
Obscured, pp. 33, 201–6.
Allen, Our
Navy, p. 295 (“It was
not to be”). Irving Brant,
James
Madison, vol. 6 (New
York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), p. 398.
Dennis Caplan, “John Adams, Thomas
Jefferson, and the Barbary Pirates:
An Illustration of Relevant Costs
for Decision Making,” Issues in Accounting
Education 18, no. 3
(2003). James Ellison, The American Captive;
or, The Siege of Tripoli: A Drama
in Five Acts (Boston:
Joshua Belcher, 1812). Joseph
Hanson, The
Musselmen Humbled; or, A Heroic
Poem in Celebration of the Bravery
Displayed by the American Tars, in
the Contest with Tripoli
(New York; Southwick and
Hardcastle,
1806).
(28)
Jefferson to Adams, May
27, 1813, in Adams-Jefferson
Letters, p. 325. See also
Adams-Jefferson
Letters: John Adams to
Thomas Jefferson, June 11, 1813, pp.
328-29. WEP, Eaton to General Bradley,
Jan. 15, 1810 (“I am closely
besieged”). William Harlan Hale,
“General Eaton and His Improbable
Legion,” American Heritage 11,
no. 2 (Feb. 1960): 106. Whipple,
To the
Shores of Tripoli, p.
280. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp.
205-6. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, p. 336. Allen,
Our
Navy, pp.
265-66.
(29)
Naval Documents Related to the
United States Wars, vol.
3: Statement by Motdecai Noah, Nov. 8,
1826, p. 232. John Martin Baker,
A View of
the Commerce of the
Mediterranean
(Washington, D.C.: Davis and Force,
1819), p. 67. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, p. 2. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 32-33 (“What a
reproof”), 119, 258. Smelser,
Democratic
Republic, p.
313.
الفصل الرابع: تنوير العالم وتحريره
(1)
Levi
Parsons, The Dereliction and
Restoration of the Jews: A Sermon,
Preached in Park-Street Church Boston,
Sabbath, Oct. 31, 1819, Just before
the Departure of the Palestine
Mission (Boston: Samuel T.
Armstrong, 1819). Levi Parson, The Memoir of Rev. Levi
Parsons, comp. Daniel
Oliver Morton (New York: Arno Press,
1977), p. 219 (“The spirit of the
missions”). Alvan Bond, Memoir of the Rev. Pliny
Fisk (New York: Arno Press,
1977), pp. 63, 96-97 (“And now, behold”).
Marty E. Martin, Pilgrims in Their Own Land: 500 Years
of Religion in America
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), pp. 146-47.
Clifton Jackson Phillips, Protestant America and
the Pagan World: The First Half
Century of the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions,
1810–1860 (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1969), p. 135.
Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 150-51. Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, pp.
13–16. Kaplan, Arabists, p. 2l.
Instructions to Fisk and Pliny, in Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World, p.
93.
(2)
Barbara W. Tuchman,
Bible and
Sword: England and Palestine from
the Bronze Age to
Balfour (New York:
Ballantine, 1956), pp. 80 (“the genius
and history”), 81, 124-25. Edward
Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine,
Mount Sinai and Arabia
Petraea, vol. 1 (Boston:
Crocker and Brewster, 1841), p. 46.
Yona Malachy, American Fundamentalism and
Israel: The Relation of
Fundamentalist Churches to Zionism
and the State of Israel
(Jerusalem: Graph Press, 1978).
Everett Emerson, Puritanism in
America, 1620–1750
(Boston: Twayne, 1977), pp. 71-72,
90–92. Cecelia Tichi, “The Puritan
Historians and Their New Jerusalem,”
Early
American Literature 6
(1971). John Davis, The Landscape of
Belief: Encountering the Holy Land
in Nineteenth-Century American Art
and Culture (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1996), p. 14
(“Jerusalem was”). Shalom Goldman,
ed., Hebrew
and the Bible in America: The First
Two Centuries. (Hanover:
Brandeis Univ. Press and Dartmouth
College, 1993), pp. xv–xxii, 105, and
God’s
Sacred Tongue: Hebrew and the
American Imagination
(Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina
Press, 2004), p. 29 (“[In] New
England”).
(3)
Burns, The American Idea of
Mission, pp. 5, 11, 18,
31, 261. Obenzinger, American
Palestine, pp. 12,
28-29. Willard Sterne Randall,
Alexander
Hamilton: A Life (New
York: Perennial, 2003), p. 18. Ron
Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New
York: Penguin, 2004), p. 18 (“entirely
out of the ordinary”). Davis,
The
Landscape of Belief, p.
15 (“instead of the twelve”). Conrad
Cherry, ed., God’s New Israel: Religious
Interpretations of American
Destiny (Chapel Hill:
Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1998),
pp. 40 (“City on the Hill”), 62–71,
82–85. Jon Meacham, American Gospel: God,
the Founding Fathers, and the
Making of a Nation (New
York: Random House, 2006), pp.
79–84.
(4)
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, p. 10. Bond,
Memoir of
the Rev. Pliny Fisk, p.
111 (“The Christian … ought”).
Tocqueville, Democracy in America,
pp. 418-19. Phillips, Protestant
America, p. 8 (“We have
now entered”), 12 (“the tabernacle of
God”). Perkins, Cambridge History of
American Foreign
Relations, p. 4 (“an
object so valuable”). Cherry,
God’s New
Israel, p. 65 (“a great
… design”). See also Brooke Allen,
“Our Godless Constitution,” Nation,
Feb. 3, 2005.
(5)
Kenneth Latourette,
Missions
and the American Mind
(Indianapolis: National Foundation
Press, 1949), pp. 28 (“Though you and
I”), 31–34. Phillips, Protestant
America, p. 20. Walter
Russell Mead, Special Providence: American
Foreign Policy and How It Changed
the World (New York:
Routledge, 2002), pp. 151-52. Kaplan,
Arabists, p. 19 (“Only
the extension”). Rao H. Lindsay,
Nineteenth
Century American Schools in the
Levant: A Study of
Purposes (Ann Arbor:
Univ. of Michigan School of Education,
1965), pp. 61–63, 67. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 50 (“the
groans” and “Zion will now”),
114-15.
(6)
Israel Finestein, “Early
and Middle 19th-Century British
Opinion on the Restoration of the
Jews: Contrasts with America,” in
Moshe Davis, ed., With Eyes toward
Zion, vol. 2: Themes and Sources in
the Archives of the United States,
Great Britain, Turkey and
Israel (New York:
Praeger, 1986), pp. 74–77, 79-80.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp.
34, 37. Martin, Pilgrims in Their Own
Land, pp. 181-82.
Tuchman, Bible
and Sword, p. 121
(“transport lzraell’s sons”). Lester
I. Vogel, To
See a Promised Land: Americans and
the Holy Land in the Nineteenth
Century (University
Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press,
1993), pp. 125-26. Cherry, God’s New
Israel, p. 91 (“the
return of the twelve”). Marr,
“Imagining Ishmael,” pp. 32-33, 35
(“When that empire faIls”), 37–40,
61.
(7)
Niles’ Weekly
Register Nov. 9, 1816,
p. 168. Naomi Shepherd, The Zealous
Intruders: The Western Rediscovery
of Palestine (London:
Collins, 1987), p. 39. Tibawi,
American
interests in Syria, pp.
5–8. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, 281. Elias
Boudinot, A
Star in the West; or, A Humble
Attempt to Discover the Long Lost
Ten Tribes of Israel, Preparatory
to Their Return to Their Beloved
City, Jerusalem
(Trenton, N.J: Fenton, Hutchinson, and
Dunham, 1816), p. 43. Michael
Schuldiner and Daniel J. Kleinfeld,
The
Selected Writings of Mordecai
Noah (London: Greenwood,
1999), p. 127 (“a hundred
thousand”).
(8)
Twenty cities in the
United States are named for Smyrna,
which is twice mentioned in the New
Testament (see Revelations 1:10-11 and
2:8). Papers of the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions
(PABCFM), 5/515/0039, Mission to the
Jews, vol. 3: Journal of Eli Smith,
Jan. 23, 1827 (“There seems to be”).
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 13-14 (“Do
nothing rashly”), 17, 23. Parsons,
Memoir, pp. 222 (“With
the spirit”), 240 (“The permission
to”). Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 151
(“wear a
turban”).
(9)
PABCFM,
5/515/0039, Mission to the Jews,
vol. 3: Journal of Eli Smith, Dec.
12, 1826 (estimation of Jerusalem’s
Jewish population). Rev. Harvey
Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions
(New York: Scribner, 1854), p. 734.
Parsons, Memoir, pp. 263, 363
(“no place in the world”), 385
(“The door is already”), 390 (“the
present commotions”). Moshe Davis
and Yehoshua Ben-Arieh, With Eyes toward
Zion, vol. 5, Jerusalem in the Mind
of the Western World,
1800–1848 (New York:
Praeger, 1997), pp. 95-96, 144.
Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 24,
151-52. Joseph L. Grabill,
Protestant
Diplomacy and the Near East:
Missionary Influence on American
Policy, 1810–1927
(Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota
Press, 1969), p. 7 (“Thy spirit,
Parsons”).
(10)
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, p. 22 (“Suffer
not your minds”). The Missionary
Herald: Reports from Ottoman Syria,
1819–1870, vol. 1, ed.
Kamal Salibi and Yusuf Khoury (Amman:
Royal Institute for Inter-Faith
Studies, 1995): Journal of Jonas King,
May 10, 1825, p. 405 (“the Arabs
poured down”). Isaac Bird, Bible Work in Bible
Lands (Philadelphia:
Presbyterian Board of Publication,
1872), p. 15. Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 154-55 (“He
gave us”).
(11)
PABCFM, 5/515/0039,
Mission to the Jews, vol. 3: Journal
of Eli Smith, March 1, 1827 (“She was
brought”); May 13, 1824; April 18,
1825 (“It is by no means”), Gridley to
Anderson, Nov. 16, 1826 (“Scarcely
ten”). Newcomb, Cyclopedia of
Missions, p. 735
(“Druses, Maronites”). Burns,
American
Idea of Mission, p. 261.
Shep-herd, Zealous Intruders, p.
40. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 94-95, 103,
129 (“missionaries loaded with
books”). Julius Richter, History of Protestant
Missions in the Near
East (New York: AMS
Press, 1970), p. 187. Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, pp.
28-29, 42. Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, p.
8.
(12)
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 25-26, 32–35,
37–39. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 98-99, 103.
Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 152,
171, 191-92.
(13)
George H. Scherer,
Mediterranean Missions,
1808–1870 (Beirut: Bible
Lands Union for Christian Education,
n.d.), p. 7. Adnan Abu-Ghazaleh,
American
Missions in Syria: A Study in
Missionary Contributions to Arab
Nationalism in 19th Century
Syria (Brattleboro, Vt.:
Amana Books, 1990), pp. 20-21. Kaplan,
Arabists, p. 21
(“Christian workers”). Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, pp.
18 (“day of small things”), 35–37, 38
(“a wide and effectual”),
42.
الباب الثاني: الشرق الأوسط وأمريكا ما قبل الحرب الأهلية
الفصل الخامس: اندماج وصراع
(1)
Pierre Crabites, Americans in the
Egyptian Army (London:
Routledge, 1938), p. 25 (“pale,
delicate-looking”). Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 144-45, 146-47 (“to
the prosperity”). Wright, “American
Relations with Turkey,” pp. 95-96. George
Bethune English, A
Narrative of the Expedition to Dongola
and Sennaar under the Command of His
Excellence Ismael Pasha Undertaken by
Order of His Highness Mehemmed Ali
Pasha Viceroy of Egypt
(Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1823), p. 114
(“the land of the free”). George Bethune
English, The
Grounds of Christianity Examined by
Comparing the New Testament with the
Old (Boston: A.M., 1813),
p. 113. George Bethune English, A Letter to the Reverend
Mr. Cary Containing Remarks upon His
Review of the Grounds of Christianity
Examined by Comparing the New
Testament with the Old by the Author
of That Work (Boston:
Printed for the Author, 1813), pp. 76
(“worship of angels”), 118 (“infernal
wickedness”). George Bethune English,
Letter
Respectfully Addressed to the Reverend
Mr. Channing Relative to His Two
Sermons on Infidelity
(Boston: Printed for the Author, 1813),
pp. 9, 30.
(2)
English, Narrative of the
Expedition to Dongola and
Sennaar, pp. 18–20, 32
(“We are lost!”), 49, 59 (“luckless
fornicators”), 61-62 (“monuments of
his”). See also Finnie, Pioneers
East, p. 147. Wright,
“American Relations with Turkey,” p.
96 (“Obstinate hostility to the
truth”). Adams-Jefferson
Letters: Adams to
Jefferson, March 10, 1823, p.
591.
(3)
Adams-Jefferson
Letters: Adams to
Jefferson, June 6, 1785, p. 133.
Republic of Letters: Jefferson to
Madison, April 15, 1804, p. 1309.
Kennedy, American Consul, pp.
94-95. Barrell, Letters from
Asia, pp. 13-14. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
p. 118 (“bribery and brass”). Josiah
Brewer, A
Residence at Constantinople in the
Year 1827, with Notes to the
Present Time (New Haven:
Durrie and Peck, 1830), p. 71. Bryson,
American
Diplomatic Relations,
pp. 17-18. Wright, “American Relations
with Turkey,” pp. 58–63. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 26–29, 30
(“Imaginary Protection”). Ades Nimet
Kurat, “Archival Documents concerning
Relations between Turkey and the
United States of America,” Journal of Historical
Research [Turkish] 5
(1964): 290 (“There is no
benefit”).
(4)
John Lewis Gaddis,
Surprise,
Security and the American
Experience (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 2004), p. 15.
Mary W. M. Hargreaves, The Presidency of
John Quincy Adams
(Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas,
1985), pp. 29-30, 38. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
119-20 (“preserve him”). Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 51-52. Wright,
“American Relations with Turkey,” pp.
28, 78–81, 89. Kurat, “Archival
Documents,” pp. 292 (“Though once
only”), 308-9 (“Their cannon
foundries”).
(5)
Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, p. 10
(“fellow-citizens of Penn”). Myrtle
Cline, American Attitude toward the Greek
War of Independence,
1821–1828 (Atlanta:
Higgins-McArthur, 1930), pp. 29
(“Sacred to the cause”), 63 (“My old
imagination”), 98 (“Humanity,
policy”). Edward Mead Earle, “Early
American Policy Concerning Ottoman
Minorities,” Political Science
Quarterly 42 (March
1927): 45 (“purge Greece”), 46 (“how
spontaneously”), 47, 55-56. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
p. 121 (“see the language”). Little,
American
Orientalism, p. 12
(“Wherever the arms”). Thomas Robbins,
Diaries,
1796–1854 (Boston:
Thomas Todd, 1886): vol. 2, entry for
April 11, 1829, p. 90. Samuel Gridely
Howe, An
Historical Sketch of the Greek
Revolution (New York:
n.p., 1828), pp.
36–38.
(6)
Samuel Woodruff,
Journal of
a Tour to Malta, Greece, Asia
Minor, Carthage, Algiers, Port
Mahon, and Spain
(Hartford: Cooke, 1831), p. 11.
Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, pp. 11-12
(“cherish[ed] sentiments”), 13–15.
John Quincy Adams, The American Annual
Register, 1827–1829 (New
York: Blunt, 1830), pp. 269 (“fanatic
and fraudulent,” “Ismael,” and
“doctrine [of] violence”), 274 (“the
subjugation of others”), 299 (“the
natural hatred”), 303. Samuel Flagg
Bemis, John
Quincy Adams and the Foundations of
American Foreign Policy
(New York: Knopf, 1956), p. 388. See
also American
Philhellenes and the War for
Independence,
http://www.ahepafamily.org/d5/Grk%20Inde-mar02.htm.
(7)
Hargreaves, Presidency of John
Quincy Adams, 86.
Wright, “American Relations with
Turkey,” pp. 96-97 (“You will inform
me” and “American Mussulman”), 109-10
(“much engaged” and “his good
offices”).
(8)
Bemis, John Quincy
Adams, p. 468.
Hargreaves, Presidency of John Quincy
Adams, pp. 85-86, 121.
Finnie, Pioneers East, pp.
53–56. Wright, “American Relations
with Turkey,” pp. 109-10, 148
(“misconduct”). John Quincy Adams,
it
Chronology, Documents and
Bibliographical Aids
(New York: Oceana Publications, 1970),
p. 84 (“suffering Greeks”). Kurat,
“Archival Documents,” p. 293 (“See how
these Franks”).
(9)
For general histories of
the reign and policies of Muhammad
Ali, see Henry H. Dodwell, The Founder of Modern
Egypt: A Study of Muhammad
Ali (1931; reprint, New
York: AMS Press, 1977), and Afaf Lutfi
al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of
Muhammad Ali (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984). See also
Shimon Shamir, “Egyptian Rule
(1832–1840) and the Beginning of the
Modern Period in the History of
Palestine,” in Gabriel Baer and Amnon
Cohen, eds., Egypt and Palestine: A Millennium
of Association
(868–1948) (New York:
St. Martin’s, 1984), pp.
214–31.
(10)
The Senate approved the
treaty, but objected to the provision
of warships. Jackson chose to ignore
the Senate’s objections, and proceeded
with arms sales to Turkey. Robert V.
Remini, Andrew
Jackson and the Course of American
Freedom, 1822–1832, vol.
2 (New York: Harper & Row,
1981), p. 289 (“to leave no proper”
and “the most friendly”). Kurat,
“Archival Documents,” pp. 293-94. John
M. Belohlavek, Let the Eagle Soar!: The Foreign
Policy of Andrew Jackson
(Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press,
1985), pp. 130–38. Donald B. Cole,
The
Presidency of Andrew
Jackson (Lawrence: Univ.
Press of Kansas, 1993), p. 128. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 145-46 (“Americans will be”).
Lester D. Langley, “Jacksonian America
and the Ottoman Empire,” The Muslim
World (Hartford: Duncan
Black Macdonald Center, Hartford
Seminary Foundation, 1978), pp. 46–49.
Tungay, “Ottoman-American Trade,” pp.
208–11. Text of the U.S.-Ottoman
Treaty can be found in Hurewitz,
Middle East
and North Africa, pp.
246-47.
(11)
In appreciation of the
sultan’s purchases of his pistols.
Samuel Colt presented him with a
gold-plated revolver emblazoned with
the images of George Washington and
the Great Seal. The firearm, today
valued at $5@ million, is on
display at New York’s Metropolitan
Museum of Art. Wright, “American
Relations with Turkey,” p. 138.
Diplomatic Instructions of the
Department of State, 1801–1906.
Turkey. April 2, 1823–July 9, 1859.
Microfilm 77, roll 162: John Forsyth
to David Porter, May 16, 1837
(“improvement in seamanship”). Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 16, 163–65,
175. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 168-69
(“balls without gunpowder”), 189
(“chairs and tables”), 191, 229. Sarah
Rogers Haight, Letters from the Old World by a
Lady of New York (New
York: Harper, 1840), p. 193. Nathaniel
Parker Willis, Summer Cruise in the Mediterranean
on an American Frigate
(New York: Scribner, 1853), p. 277.
Brewer, Residence at
Constantinople, p. 72.
See also Thomas A. Bryson, An American Consular
Officer in the Middle East in the
Jacksonian Era: A Biography of
William Brown Hodgson,
1801–1871 (Atlanta:
Resurgens, 1979), p.
42.
(12)
Edmund Roberts, Embassy to the
Eastern Courts of Cochin-China,
Siam, and Muscat, in the U.S.
Sloop-of-War Peacock, during the
Years 1832-3-4 (New
York: Harper, 1837) (courtesy of the
New Hampshire Historical Society and
the Tuck Library), pp. 343–45 (“the
scene of”), 361 (“A strict lover”),
362–64. New
England Merchants in Africa: A
History through Documents,
1802–1865, ed. Norman
Bennett and George Brooks (Boston:
Boston Univ. Press, 1965): Edmund
Roberts to Louis Mclane, May 14, 1834,
pp. 156-57. Michael A. Palmer,
Guardians
of the Gulf: A History of America’s
Expanding Role in the Persian Gulf,
1833–1992 (New York:
Free Press, 1992), pp. 3-4. Among the
coins presented to Sultan Sa’id was an
extremely rare 1804 silver dollar now
known as the Watters-Childs specimen,
which last sold for $4.4
million. See
http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Union/8191/mcsh/Omanncss.html
and
http://www.coinfacts.com/silver_dollars/1804_dollars/1804_Draped_Bust_Silver_Dollar.htm.
(13)
Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 258 (“salutary
effect”), 261 (“savage and
uncivilized”). Missionary Herald, vol.
2: Letter from Eli Smith, Sept. 17,
1834, p. 431 (“multitude of Arab
Christians”). John Israel and Henry
Lundt, Journal
of a Cruize in the U.S. Ship
Delaware 74 in the Mediterranean in
the Years 1833 &
34 (1835; reprint, New
York: Arno Press, 1977). George Jones,
Excursions
to Cairo, Jerusalem, Damascus, and
Balbec from the United States
Ship Delaware, during Her Recent
Cruise: With an Attempt to
Discriminate between Truth and
Error in Regard to the Sacred
Places of the Holy City
(New York: Van Nostrand and Dwight,
1836). See also “An Audience with
Sultan Abdul Mejud,” by An American,
Knickerbocker 19 (June
1842).
(14)
Frank E. Manuel,
The
Realities of American-Palestine
Relations (1949;
West-port, Conn.: Greenwood, 1975),
pp. 9-10. Kennedy, American
Consul, pp. 86–89,
97-98. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, p. 88. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 250–53 (“Our
whole consular”). Luella J. Hall,
The United
States and Morocco,
1776–1956 (Metuchen,
N.J.: Scarecrow, 1971), pp. 90-91.
Ruth Kark, “Annual Reports of the
United States Consuls in the Holy Land
as a Source for the Study of 19th
Century Eretz Israel,” in Davis,
With Eyes
toward Zion, vol. 2, pp.
131-32.
(15)
USNA, Dispatches from
U.S. Ministers to Turkey, 1818–1906
(Microfilm M46): David Porter to
Nicholas Navoni, Sept. 23, 1831. W. M.
Churchill to the Secretary of State,
Aug. 10, 1833. The Papers of Daniel
Webster, ser. 3,
Diplomatic
Papers, vol. 1 (Hanover:
Univ. Press of New England, 1983), pp.
23-24. David Long, Nothing Too Daring: A
Biography of Commodore David
Porter, 1780–1843
(Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute,
1970), pp. 17–21. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 3, 90.
Archibald Douglas Turnbull, Commodore David
Porter, 1780–1843 (New
York: Century, 1929), pp. 250-51.
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 151, 168
(“There is no part”), 174. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 83–85 (“the
head and neck”), 88 (“Salaams are”),
91, 94.
(16)
Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
165–67, 170, 174. Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 68, 71–73,
94-95 (“Had I the talent”), 259.
Kennedy, American Consul, pp.
92–95. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, p. 3. Cary Corwin
Conn, “John Porter Brown, Father of
Turkish-American Relations: An Ohioan
at the Sublime Porte, 1832–1872”
(Ph.D. diss., Ohio State Univ., 1973),
pp. 48-49.
(17)
The pardon came too late,
however, for two of the Syrians Jews,
who were tortured to death. See
Jonathan Frankel, The Damascus Affair:
“Ritual Murder,” Politics, and the
Jews in 1840 (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997).
Sarna,
Jacksonian Jew, pp.
123–25. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 3, 90.
Malachy, American Fundamentalism and
Israel, pp. 23–25.
Diplomatic Instructions of the
Department of State, 1801–1906.
Turkey. April 2, 1823–July 9, 1859.
Microfilm 77, roll 162: John Forsyth
to David Porter, Aug. 17, 1840
(“atrocious
cruelties”).
(18)
Papers of
Daniel Webster, pp.
273-74 (“Avoid doing anything”),
277-78 (“Frank residents of Beyrout”),
280. Stephen Vincent Benet, The Devil and Daniel
Webster and Other
Writings (New York:
Penguin, 2000). Irving H. Bartlett,
Daniel
Webster (New York:
Norton, 1978), pp. 24, 44, 73, 85.
Robert Seeger, And Tyler Too: A Biography of John
and Julia Gardiner Tyler
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963), pp.
104, 109. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
287–89, 350-51 (“A reading nation”).
Finnie, Pioneers East, pp.
94–95, 126–27 (“at their own risk”).
Franklin Steiner, The Religious Beliefs
of Our Presidents: From Washington
to F.D.R. (New York:
Prometheus, 1995), pp.
95-97.
الفصل السادس: المصير الحتمي للشرق الأوسط
(1)
Brewer, Residence at
Constantinople, pp. 25,
65, 361, 370. Finnie, Pioneers
East, 36–37 (“Our
Pilgrim
mothers”).
(2)
Newcomb, Cyclopedia of
Missions, p. 737.
Finnie, Pioneers East, pp.
50-51, 57, 171-72 (“I have not heard”
and “roar of cannon”), 172–87.
Missionary
Herald, vol. 2: Journal
of Mr. Thomson, April 16, 1834, p. 373
(“The Jordan”); Journal of Mr. Thomson
[written in Nablus], April 23, 1834,
p. 378 (“the wreck”); Whiting to
Dodge, Nov. 17, 1834, p. 441. Davis,
Landscape
of Belief, p. 45.
Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions,
p. 737 (“not a single soul”). Yehoshua
Ben-Arieh, Painting the Holy Land in the 19th
Century (Jerusalem: Yad
Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1997), p. 210. Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, pp.
100-1. Bird, Bible Work in Bible
Lands, p. 87 (“a land of
devils”). See also Shamir, “Egyptian
Rule,” pp.
214–31.
(3)
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 40–43 (“The
Turks … exhibit”). Board report in
Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions,
p. 737. Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 35–38, 39
(“gloomy, austere”), 42 (“The thought
of their”), 124, 193-94. Brewer,
Residence
at Constantinople, pp.
383-84.
(4)
Horatio Southgate,
Narrative
of a Tour through Armenia,
Kurdistan, Persia, and
Mesopotamia (London:
Appleton, 1840), pp. 300-1 (“the first
Americans”). Kaplan, Arabists,
pp. 22-23 (“every species”), 24-25.
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, p. 79. Finnie,
Pioneers
East, pp. 208-9 (“I felt
a stronger desire”), 216-17 (“The
sick, the lame”), 196-97, 205–7,
214-15 (“his eye bright”).
(5)
Finnie, Pioneers
East, 118-19, 205–9
(“Enfeebled health”), 238-39 (“Let us
have”). Louisa Hawes, Memoir of Mrs. M. E.
Van Lennep, by Her
Mother (Hartford:
Belknap and Hamersley, 1849), p. 325
(“I sometimes fear”). Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, p.
73 (“The hour is near”). Hawes,
Memoir of
Mrs. M. E. Van Lemep, p.
325. Missionary Herald, vol.
2: Letter from Eli Smith, June 21,
1827, p. 247; Memoir of William
Goodell, 1825, p. 431 (“a man’s hat”).
The
Reminiscences of Daniel
Bliss (New York: Revell,
1920), p. 106 (“You Americans
think”).
(6)
Robert T. Handy,
The Holy
Land in American Protestant Life,
1800–1948 (New York:
Arno Press, 1981), 85-86 (“Whereas,
but”). Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 56, 82-83,
121-22, 170–76. Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 109 (“liberty,
property”), 200-1 (“Not only do”).
Stephen Penrose, That They May Have
Life: The Story of the American
University of Beirut,
1866–1941 (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1941), p.
6.
(7)
Missionary Herald, vol.
2: Letter from Mr. Marsh, Feb. 25,
1851, p. 299. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
210 (“ought to know”), 250, 351 (“I do
love”). Finnie, Pioneers
East, p. 129 (“full
extent” and “I am persuaded”).
Phillips, Protestant America, p.
259. William Goodell, Forty Years in the
Turkish Empire (New
York: Robert Carter, 1883), p. 174
(“We have come”) For insights into
missionary views of Islam and
Muhammad, see Thomas Laurie, The Ely Volume; or,
The Contributions of Our Foreign
Missions to Science and Human
Well-Being (Boston:
American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions, 1881), pp. 320–22,
and the anonymous Life of
Mohammad (Bombay:
American Mission Press, 1851). The
semidiplomatic role of European
missionaries is discussed in Derek
Hopwood, The
Russian Presence in Syria and
Palestine, 1843–1914: Church and
Politics in the Near
East (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1969), p.
59.
(8)
Cyrus Hamlin, My Life and
Times (Boston: Pilgrim
Press, 1893), pp. 30, 62. Cyrus
Hamlin, Among
the Turks (New York:
Robert Carter, 1878), pp. 57 (“a
decided impression”), 62 (“rather
leaky”). Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 99–108, 109
(“indomitably self-willed”). Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
p. 297 (“querulous” and “despotic”),
347-48.
(9)
Vogel, To See a Promised
Land, pp. 118-19.
Latourette, Missions and the American
Mind, p. 33. Grabill,
Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 4.
Lindsay, Nineteenth Century American
Schools, p. 66.
Phillips, Protestant America, p.
316. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 97-98. Mead,
Special
Providence, pp. 143,
146–48, 150-51. Lewis, Crisis of
Islam, p. 67 (“This
country is”). PABCFM: Eddy to the
American Board, Sept. 7, 1867 (“There
are no rail”). Benjamin Foster, “Yale
and the Study of Near Eastern
Languages in America, 1770–1930,” in
Amanat and Bernhardsson, eds.,
United
States and the Middle
East, pp. 18 (“The
countries of the West”), 19. Bruce
Kuklick, Puritans in Babylon: The Ancient
Near East and American Intellectual
Life, 1880–1930
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press,
1996), pp. 5, 20–22. John Thornton
Kirkland, “Letter on the Holy Land,”
Christian
Examiner and General
Review 23, no. 2 (1842):
261. Elizabeth Cabot Kirkland,
Letters (Cambridge:
Massachusetts Historical Society,
1905), p. 503 (“These worthy
people”).
(10)
Robinson, Biblical Researches
Palestine, vol. 1, pp.
23–25, 75, 133 (“strangeness and
overpowering” and “Although not
given”). William Thomson, The Land and the
Book; or, Biblical Illustrations
Drawn from the Manners and Customs,
the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy
Land, vol. 1 (New York:
Harper, 1886), p. 6. Manuel, Realities,
pp. 6–12. Ruth Kark, American Consuls in
the Holy Land, 1832–1914
(Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew
Univ., 1994), pp. 84, 95, 127 (“There
is no other”). Obenzinger, American
Palestine, p. xvii.
Vivian D. Lipman, “American-Holy Land
Material in British Archives,
1820–1930,” in Davis, With Eyes toward
Zion, vol. 2, p.
28.
(11)
Robinson, Biblical Researches
in Palestine, vol. 1,
pp. 23–25, 75, 132, 162 (“stagnation
and moral darkness”), 176, 262-63,
266–68, 350, 374 (“vast mass of
tradition”). Edward Robinson,
Later
Biblical Researches in Palestine
and Adjacent Regions: A journal of
travels in the year 1852
(London: John Murray, 1856), p. 73.
Shepherd, Zealous Intruders, pp.
80-83. Handy, Holy Land, pp. 2–19.
Neal Asher Silberman, Digging for God and
Country: Archeology and the Secret
Struggle for the Holy Land,
1799–1917 (New York:
Knopf, 1982), pp. 40–47 Davis,
Landscape
of Belief, p. 36
(“American
science”).
(12)
William F. Lynch,
Narrative
of the United States’ Expedition to
the River Jordan and the Dead
Sea (Philadelphia:
Blanchard and Lea, 1853), pp. v
(“teeming with sacred”), 18 (“hallowed
by”), 76, 79 (“protection against”),
115 (“gun-shot wounds”), 119, 152 (“It
must have been”), 230 (“wanderers in
an unknown”), 259-60, 261, 284 (“The
curse of God”), 293 (“in honour of),
287 (“the tents among”), 321 (“The
thought of death”), 407. Edward P.
Montague, Narrative of the Late Expedition
to the Dead Sea
(Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1849),
pp. 116, 121-22 (“We Yankee boys”),
149, 218-19 (“float with perfect
ease”).
(13)
Lynch, Narrative of the
United States’
Expedition, pp. 360
(“Fifty well-armed”), 415 (“destined
to be”). American Geographical and
Statistical Society, Report and Memorial
on Syrian Exploration
(New York: New York Univ., 1857), p.
7. Andrew C. A. Jampoler, Sailors in the Holy
Land: The 1848 American Expedition
to the Dead Sea and the Search for
Sodom and Gomorrah
(Annapolis: Naval Institute Press,
2005), pp. 60, 142. See also Robert
Edward Rook, “Blueprints and Prophets:
Americans and Water Resource Planning
for the Jordan River Valley,
1860–1970” (Ph.D. diss., Kansas State
Univ., 1996), pp.
22-23.
(14)
Robbins, Diaries,
1796–1854, vol. 2, p.
573. Haight, Letters from the Old
World, p. 110. George
Bush, The
Valley of Vision (New
York: Saxton and Miles, 1844), pp. 17
(“the thralldom and oppression”), 39
(“carnal inducements”), 41 (“It will
blaze”), 56 (“link of communication”).
Shalom Goldman, “Professor George
Bush: American Hebraist and
Proto-Zionist,” American Jewish
Archives 43, no. 1
(1991): 58–69. “Bush on Ezekiel’s
Vision,” Princeton Review 16,
no. 3 (1844): 384. Elaine B. Prince,
“The Patrilineal Descent of
Vice-President Bush,” NEXUS: The Bimonthly
Newsletter of the New England
Genealogical Society 3
(1986): 124-25.
(15)
Truman G. Madsen, “The
Holy Land and the Mormon Restoration,”
in Davis, With
Eyes toward Zion, vol.
2, pp. 28-29. Obenzinger, American
Palestine, pp. xvii,
116, 121, 126-27, 160 (“very weak
minded”). Warder Cresson, The Key of
David (Philadelphia:
Self-published, 1852), p. 15 (“There
is no salvation”). Frank Fox, “Quaker,
Shaker, Rabbi: Warder Cresson: The
Story of a Philadelphia Mystic,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History
and Biography 95 (1971):
147 (“I left the wife”), 157–63.
Vogel, To See
a Promised Land, p. 170
(“capacity & probity”). Sarna,
Jacksonian
Jew, pp. 153–55.
Selected
Writings of Mordecai
Noah, pp. 125-26.
William Makepeace Thackeray, From Cornhill to
Grand Cairo (London:
George Routledge, 1888), pp. 225-26,
242 (“has no
knowledge”).
(16)
Catherine A. Brekus,
“Harriet Livermore, the Pilgrim
Stranger: Female Preaching and
Biblical Feminism in Early
Nineteenth-Century America,” Journal of the Early
Republic 65 (Sept.
1996): 389–404. Elizabeth F. Hoxie,
“Harriet Livermore: Vixen and
Devotee,” New
England Quarterly 18
(March 1945): 41 (“Sick of the
world”), 43 (“She is the most”).
Diplomatic Instructions of the
Department of State, 1801–1906.
Turkey. April 2, 1823–July 9, 1859.
Microfilm 77, roll 162: Louis Lane to
David Porter, April 28, 1834 (“high
character”). Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 182-83 (“meet
my lot”). Portraits of Lady Hester
Stanhope can be found in Charles Lewis
Meryon and Hester Lucy Stanhope,
The Travels
of Lady Hester Stanhope
(London: H. Colburn, 1846). Michael
Bruce, The Nun
of Lebanon (London:
Collins, 1951). “The Memoirs of Lady
Stanhope,” Living Age 6, no. 69
(Sept. 6,
1845).
(17)
John T. Brown, ed.,
Churches of
Christ (Louisville: John
P. Morton, 1904), pp. 440-41
(“criminally modest” and “they could
all”). James Turner Barclay, The City of the Great
King; or, Jerusalem As It Was, As
It Is, and As It Is to
Be (Philadelphia: James
Challen, 1857), pp. 608–10. Handy,
Holy
Land, p. 84 (“God hath
not”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land,
p. 107.
(18)
Clorinda Minor, Meshullam!; or,
Tidings from Jerusalem: From the
Journal of a Believer Recently
Returned from the Holy
Land (Philadelphia:
Self-published, 1851), pp. 52 (“His
time to favor”), 91, 114 (“Many
Christians profess”). Catherine A.
Brekus, Strangers and Pilgrims: Female
Preaching in America,
1740–1845 (Chapel Hill:
Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1998),
p. 53 (“The conviction of my soul”).
Henry L. Feingold, Zion in America: The
Jewish Experience from Colonial
Times to the Present
(New York: Twayne, 1974), p. 199.
Barbara Krieger, Divine Expectations:
An American Woman in 19th Century
Palestine (Athens: Ohio
Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 38-39, 50,
113–16. Lipman, “American-Holy Land
Material,” pp.
29–32.
(19)
Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
280 (“the Modern Tabitha”). Tabitha—in
Greek, Dorcas—was a righteous woman of
Jaffa who, according to the New
Testament (Acts 9:36–43), was
resurrected after death by the apostle
Peter. Yaron Perry, “John Steinbeck’s
Roots in Nineteenth-Century
Palestine,” Steinbeck Studies 15,
no. 1 (Spring 2002): 51-52 (“our
Hebrew friends”), 55. Abraham Karp,
“The Zionism of Warder Cresson,” in
Isadore Meyer, ed., Early Zionism in
America (Philadelphia:
American Jewish Historical Society,
1958), pp. 9–14. Warder Cresson
Biography,
http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/Cresson.html.
Vogel, To See
a Promised Land, p. 132.
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, p.
281.
(20)
PABCFM, 5/546/16.8.1,
Syrian Mission, vol. 7: Eddy to the
American Board, Sept. 7, 1867 (“Europe
is striving”). Tocqueville, Democracy in
America, vol. 1, pp. 269
(“all-pervading”), 318 (“unquiet
passions”); vol. 2, p. 622 (“strange
unrest” and “in the
midst”).
الفصل السابع: تحت عيون الأمريكان
(1)
Stanley T. Williams, ed.,
Journal of
Washington Irving, 1828 and
Miscellaneous Notes on Moorish Legend
and History (New York:
American Book Co., 1937), pp. 21–34.
William H. Hedges, The Old and New World Romanticism of
Washington Irving (New
York: Greenwood, 1986), pp. 20, 89–120.
Philip Almond, “Western Images of Islam,
1700–1900,” Australian Journal of Politics and
History 49, no. 3 (2003).
Fuad Shaban, Islam
and Arabs in Early American Thought:
Roots of Orientalism in
America (Durham, N.C.:
Acorn Press, 1991), p. 32. Malini Johar
Schueller, U.S.
Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender
in Literature, 1790–1890
(Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press,
1998), pp. 68–70. Ahmed Mohamed Met walli,
“The Lure of the Levant: The American
Literary Experience in Egypt and the Holy
Land, 1800–1865,” (Ph.D. diss., State
Univ. of New York at Albany, 1971), p. 64
(“living in the Arabian”). Washington
Irving and James Paulding, Salmagundi
(Chicago: Belford, Clarke, 1807), pp. 34
(“positively assured”), 86 (“superlative
ventosity”), 131 (“slangwhangging”).
George S. Hellman, Washington Irving, Esquire:
Ambassador at Large from the New World
to the Old (New York:
Knopf, 1925), pp. 155 (“A mighty
potentate”), 207 (“a kind of Oriental”).
Washington Irving, The Conquest of Granada
(New York: Putnam, 1850), p. xx (“romantic
adventures”). Washington Irving, Alhambra
(Boston: Ginn, 1902), p. 90 (“naked
realities”).
(2)
Barrell, Letters from
Asia, p. 10. Wright,
“American Relations with Turkey,” p.
155. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 4,
12-13, 160–65. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
298. Joseph J. Malone, “America and
the Arabian Peninsula: The First Two
Hundred Years,” Middle East
Journal 30, no. 3
(Summer 1976): 407. Isaac M. Fein,
The Making
of an American Jewish Community:
The History of Baltimore Jewry from
1773 to 1920
(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication
Society, 1971), pp. 24-25. Tigger,
“Egyptology, Ancient Egypt,” pp.
21-22.
(3)
Papers of William H.
Seward: “Governor Seward’s Journey
from Egypt to Palestine,” New York Daily
Tribune, Dec. 24, 1859,
p. 5 (“There are no berths”).
Metwalli, “Lure of the Levant,” p.
100. Prices to travel to the Middle
East are listed in Warder Cresson,
King
Solomon’s Two Women and the Living
and Dead Child or
Messiah (Philadelphia:
Self-published, 1852), pp. 343-44.
John Lloyd Stephens, Incidents of Travel
in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the
Holy Land (New York:
Harper, 1855), pp. 4, 17-18. James
Ewing Cooley, The American in Egypt, with
Rambles through Arabia Petra and
the Holy Land during the Years
1839-1840 (New York:
Appleton, 1842), pp. 16, 329. Wages in
1840 listed on “Senate Salaries since
1789,”
www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common
/briefing/senate_salaries.htm and
“Documenting the American South,”
http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/helper/helper.html.
(4)
David F. Dorr, A Colored Man round
the World by a Quadroon
(N.p: Printed for the author, 1858),
pp. 38 (“head-choppers”), 186. Cooley,
American in
Egypt, pp. 15 (“narrow,
gloomy streets”), 16 (“Arabs,
Armenians”), 262 (“ignorance and
superstition”), 313 (“lunatics,
idiots”). Stephens, Incidents of
Travel, pp. 18 (“splendor and
opulence” and “the dashing Turk”), 103
(“bigoted Musselmans”), 104, 120
(“false religion” and “haughty and
deluded”). Haight, Letters from the Old
World, pp. 30 (“I only
saw”), 269
(“Mohammedanism”).
(5)
Cooley, American in
Egypt, pp. 259
(“civilized nations”). Stephens,
Incidents
of Travel, pp. 174-75
(“When I heard”), 345 (“life hangs”).
Haight, Letters from the Old
World, pp. 45
(“penetrate the darkness”), 269
(“political crusade”), 270 (“kick the
beam”). Walter Cotton, Visit to
Constantinople and
Athens, vol. 2 (New
York: Leavitt, Lord, 1836), pp. 105,
176-77 (“The same effort”), 181
(“Islamism”). Finnie, Pioneers
East, pp. 155 (“There is
a feeling”), 161. Valentine Mott,
Travels in
Europe and the East (New
York: Harper, 1842), p. 269 (“His
royal highness”). William H. Bartlett,
The Nile
Boat; or, Glimpses of the Land of
Egypt. (London: Arthur
Hall, Virtue, 1850), pp. 46 (“city of
Saladin”), 135 (“Egypt, fallen”).
Kirkland, Letters, pp. 480-81 (“a
rich Jew”), 490 (“a man lying”).
(6)
Stephens, Incidents of
Travel, pp. 146 (“yellow
slippers”), 84-85 (“that precious
fragment”), 216. Mott, Travels in Europe and
the East, p. 327. Dorr,
Colored Man
round the World, pp. 123
(“I would have given”), 177 (“jingling
and a screwing”). Willis, Summer
Cruise, pp. 254 (“the
camel-driver’s wife”), 268 (“a
graceful creature”), 285. On
nineteenth-century Western sexual
fantasies of the Middle East, see
Edward Said, Orientalism (New York:
Vintage, 1979), pp. 119,
181–90.
(7)
Bayard Taylor, The Lands of the
Saracen; or, Pictures of Palestine,
Asia Minor, Sicily, and
Spain (New York: Putnam,
1855), pp. 55 (“We kept our arms”), 56
(“heard the trumpets”). Finnie,
Pioneers
East, 181–83 (“plain man
of steady habits”), 187, Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 195–96. Stephens, Incidents of
Travel, pp. 163 (“Can it
be”), 188 (“witness of that great”),
318 (“I never saw”). Haight, Letters from the Old
World, vol. 2, pp. 10
(“her friends have”), 130 (“How
deplorable”). Cooley, American in
Egypt, pp. 45 (“Surely
the serpent”), 60 (“He that dippeth”).
Dorr, Colored
Man round the World, p.
187 (“not worth”). Mott, Travels in Europe and
the East, p. 330
(“Nothing denotes”). Kirkland,
Letters, p. 491 (“I
wore my”).
(8)
Davis, Landscape of
Belief, pp. 33, 42. The
review of Cooley’s book can be found
in United
States Democratic Review
11, no. 50 (Aug. 1842): 219 (“a
novelty quite unique”). Samuel Austin
Allibone, A
Critical Dictionary of English
Literature, and British and
American Authors
(Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1871), pp.
415 (“replete with information”), 754
(“precious volumes”). Cleveland Plain
Dealer archive, Sept.
20, 1858, p. 3 (“graphic and racy”).
“A Kentuckian in the East,” Harper’s New Monthly
Magazine, 6, no. 36, May
1853, p. 741. The Works of the Late Edgar Allan
Poe, vol. 4 (New York:
Arthur Gordon Pym, 1856), pp. 371–89.
Washington Irving, Mahomet and His
Successors (Chicago:
Belford, Clarke, 1973), p. 200. J.
Ross Browne, Yusef or, The Journey of the
Frangi: A Crusade in the
West (New York: Harper,
1853), p. 177 (“Yes,
sir”).
(9)
John Freeman, Herman
Melville (New York:
Macmillan, 1926), pp. 32–34, 63–65.
Robert L. Gale, A Herman Melville
Encyclopedia (Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), pp. 106-7,
127, 143, 400. Herman Melville,
Redburn (New York:
Literary Classics of the United
States, 1983), p. 10. Herman Melville,
Moby
Dick (New York:
Hendrick’s House, 1952), p. 30.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, p.
63. Herman Melville, Journals,
ed. Howard C. Horsford and Lynn Horth
(Chicago: Northwestern Univ. Press,
1989), pp. 56 (“Imagine an immense”),
58, 61 (“horrible grimy”), 62-63 (“Out
of every”), 65 (“these millions”),
72-73 (“like a huge stick”), 75-76
(“Vapors below summits”). Herman
Melville, White-Jacket; or, The World in a
Man-of-War (Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1990), p. 153.
Metwalli, “Lure of the Levant,” p.
353. Dorothee Metlitsky Finkelstein,
Melville’s
Orienda (New Haven and
London: Yale Univ. Press, 1961), pp.
3, 165–67, 189,
192.
(10)
Warder Cresson, Jerusalem: The Center
and Joy of the Universe
(Philadelphia: Self-published, 1844),
p. 23 (“God hath chosen”). Frank Fox,
“Quaker, Shaker, Rabbi,” pp. 174, 182.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp.
127, 133 (“sawdust of Christianity”),
134-35. Warder Cresson biography on
http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/Cresson.html
(“settling forever”). Melville,
White-Jacket, p. 153
(“peculiar chosen people”). Melville,
Journal, pp. 83 (“It is
against the will” and “Whitish
mildew”), 85 (“An American turned
Jew”), 87 (“confused and
half-ruinous”), 90 (“No country” and
“the color”), 91 (“Is the desolation”
and “In the emptiness”), 94
(“preposterous Jew
mania”).
(11)
Melville, Journal,
pp. 81 (“exponent of her
aspirations”), 92 (“broken-down
machinist”), 93 (“H.M.: Have you
settled”). Herman Melville, Clarel: A Poem and
Pilgrimage to the Holy
Land (Chicago:
Northwestern Univ. Press, 1991), p.
413 (“in the name of Christ”).
Finkelstein, Melville’s Orienda, pp.
60-61, 90. Obenzinger, American
Palestine, pp. 68-89.
Walter Herbert, “The Force of
Prejudice: Melville’s Attack on
Missions in Typee,” Border States 1
(1973). Perry, “John Steinbeck’s
Roots,” pp. 52–55, 60-61 USNA, RG 59,
Dispatches from the U.S. Consuls.
Alexandria, Egypt, vol. 2: Gorham to
Brown, Jan. 17, 1858: Testimony of
Mary Steinbeck, Jan. 18, 1858 (“Oh!
Father” and “We sat half”); Testimony
of Caroline Dickson, Jan. 18, 1858.
Vogel, To See
a Promised Land, p. 133.
Robert DeMott, “Steinbeck’s Other
Family: New Light on East of Eden?”
Steinbeck
Newsletter 7, no. 1
(Winter 1994).
(12)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls. Jerusalem,
Palestine: De Leon to Bell, Jan. 27,
1858 (“prompt, stern”); De Leon to
Cass, Feb. 22, 1858 (“unprotected
heads”); De Leon to Cass, March 6,
1858 (“We regard the murder”); Gorham
to Brown, Oct. 12, 1859; De Leon to
Cass, July 28, 1860 (“It is the
nature”). Edwin De Leon, Thirty
Yearsof My Life on
Three Continents
(London: Ward and Downey, 1890), pp.
259 (“Are our countries”), 262 (“the
Arab character”), 263 (“The
audacity”). Feingold, Zion in
America, p. 89. USNA, RG
84, Records of
Foreign Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt: The State
Department to Edwin de Leon, April 16,
1858. Papers of William H. Seward,
Reel 58: Trabulsi to Seward, Sept.
[n.d.], 1859.
(13)
Harold W. Felton,
Uriah
Phillips Levy (New York:
Dodd, Mead, 1978), p. 34. Samuel
Sobel, Intrepid Soldier
(Philadelphia: Cresset, 1980), pp. 17,
15 (“I would rather serve”), 21.
Sanford V. Sternlicht, Uriah Phillips Levy:
The Blue Star Commodore
(Norfolk: Norfolk Jewish Community
Council, 1961), p. 41. Donovan
Fitzpatrick and Saul Saphire,
Navy
Maverick: Uriah Phillips
Levy (Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1963). Marc Leeson,
Saving
Monticello: The Levy Family’s Epic
Quest to Rescue the House That
Jefferson Built (New
York: Free Press, 2001). Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 292-93. Palmer, Guardians of the
Gulf, pp.
6–8.
(14)
Douglas H. Strong,
Dreamers
and Defenders: American
Conservationists
(Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press,
1988), pp. 29-30. Life and Letters of
George Perkins Marsh
(New York: Scribner, 1888), p. 7. Jane
Curtis, Will Curtis, and Frank
Lieberman, The
World of George Perkins
Marsh (Woodstock:
Countryman Press, 1982), pp. 65, 90,
102. David Lowenthal. George Perkins Marsh:
Versatile Vermonter (New
York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1958), pp.
120 (“wretched place”), 121-22, 126,
134–36, 178 (“the Comanches” and
“strike with a salutary”). Rook,
“Blueprints and Prophets,” pp. 34-35,
39-40. Melville, Journals,
pp. 69-70. Ninth Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution
(Washington, D.C.: Beverley Tucker,
1855), pp. 100 (“Ship of the desert”),
120.
(15)
Younis, “Arabs Who
Followed Columbus,” p. 14. Felicity
Allen, Jefferson Davis: Unconquerable
Heart (Columbia: Univ.
of Missouri Press, 1999), p. 210. Odie
B. Faulk, The
U.S. Camel Corps (New
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976), pp.
30, 49, 102 (“What are these”), 185-86
(“Napoleon, when”), The Papers of
Jefferson Davis, ed.
Lynda Crist and Mary Dix, vol. 6
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ.
Press, 1989), pp. 26-27, 87 (“These
tests fully realize”), 385, 387. Ben
Macintyre, The
Man Who Would Be King: The First
American in Afghanistan
(New York; Farrar, Straus and Giroux,
2004). pp. 269–72. See also U.S. Camel Corps
Remembered in Quartzite
Arizona,
http://www.outwestnewspaper.com/camels.html.
(16)
Khalaf, Persistence and
Change, pp. 89–93.
PABCFM: W. W. Eddy to Board, June 5,
1860. Henry Jessup, Fifty-three Years in
Syria, vol. 1 (New York:
Revell, 1910), pp. 175
(“terror-stricken, hungry”), 187-88
(“the blood at length”). Reminiscences of
Daniel Bliss, pp. 142,
146, 152. Melvin Urofsky, The Levy Family and
Monticello (Monticello:
Thomas Jefferson Foundation, 2001), p.
83. Perry, “John Steinbeck’s Roots,”
p. 70. Malini Johar Schueller, ed.,
David F.
Dorr: A Colored Man round the
World (Ann Arbor: Univ.
of Michigan Press, 1999), p.
xi.
الباب الثالث: الحرب الأهلية وإعادة التعمير
الفصل الثامن: التصدُّع
(1)
Writings of Benjamin
Franklin, vol. 10;
Historicus to the Editor of the Federal
Gazette, March 23, 1790,
pp. 87–91. Ellis, Founding Brothers, pp.
81–119.
(2)
Lotfi Ben Rejeb,
“America’s Captive Freemen in North
Africa: The Comparative Method in
Abolitionist Persuasion” Slavery and
Abolition 9 (1988):
60-61 (“If many thousands”). Arthur
Zilversmit, The First Emancipation: The
Abolition of Slavery in the
North (Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1967), p. 171
(“doubtless shudder”). Marr,
“Imagining Ishmael,” p. 142 (“The
American slaves”) and (“the
injustice and cruelty”). The Family Letters of
Thomas Jefferson, ed.
Edwin Bettis and James Bear Jr.
(Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press,
1966): Martha Jefferson to Thomas
Jefferson, May 5, 1787, p. 39.
Documentary
History of the Ratification of the
Constitution: Anonymous
letter, Feb. 6, 1789, p. 872 (“six
of one”). Tyler, Algerine
Captive, pp. 98 (“like
so many head”), 111 (“fly to”).
Anonymous, American in Algiers, p.
24.
(3)
James Stevens, An Historical and
Geographical Account of
Algiers (Philadelphia:
Hogan and McElroy, 1797), p. 235 (“the
execrable practice”). WEP,
Negociations of the United States with
the Kingdom of Tunis, roll 2: “Remarks
&c Made at Algiers,” Feb. 24,
1799, p. 38 (“Barbary is hell”). James
Riley, Sufferings in Africa: Captain
Riley’s Narrative (New
York: Potter, 1965), pp. 445 (“the
cursed tree”) 446-47 (“shiver in
pieces”). Allison, Crescent
Obscured, pp. 221–25.
Gerald McMurty, “Influences of Riley’s
Narrative upon Abraham
Lincoln,” Indiana Magazine of
History 30, no. 2 (June
1934): 136–38. Marr, “Imagining
Ishmael,” pp. 151–53. Charles Sumner,
White
Slavery in the Barbary
States (Boston: J. P.
Jewett, 1853), pp. 11,
12-13.
(4)
Missionary Herald:
Journal of Pliny Fisk, Mary 8, 1823,
p. 156. Shaban, Islam and Arabs in
Early American Thought.
Albert J. Raboteau, “Black Americans,”
in Davis, With
Eyes toward Zion, vol.
2, pp. 312–14. Stephen Olin, Travels in Egypt,
Arabia Petra and the Holy
Land (New York: Harper,
1844), p. 318 (“great national
calamities”). Handy, Holy Land,
p. xiii (“A keen
observer”).
(5)
Ziff, Return
Passages, p. 50. Mott,
Travels in
Europe and the East, pp.
390-91. Willis, Summer
Cruise, pp. 282-83.
Stephens, Incidents of Travel, p.
62. Cooley, American in Egypt, p.
349. Dorr, Colored Man round the
World, p.
141.
(6)
FRUS, 1861: Brown to
Aali Pacha, June 26, 1861, pp. 391-92
(“continue to cultivate”); Brown to
Seward, July 17, 1861, p. 391
(“friendly sympathies”); Thayer to
Seward, June 29, 1861; 1862: Message
of the President to the Two Houses of
Congress, Dec. 5, 1862, p. 5. Seward
to Morris, April 1, 1862, p. 783
(“accustomed as they are”); 1863, vol.
2: Thayer to Seward, Nov. 5, 1862, p.
1101. Phillip Shaw Paludan, The Presidency of
Abraham Lincoln
(Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas,
1994), pp. 89–91, 218-19. Benjamin P.
Thomas, Abraham Lincoln: A
Biography (New York:
Random House, 1968), pp. 281–83, 360.
Wright, United
States Policy toward
Egypt, pp. 60-61. On the
replacement of James Williams, see
Senate
Executive Journal, March
18, 1861, p.
310.
(7)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls. Tangier, Morocco,
vol. 8: De Long to Seward; Feb. 15,
1862 (“so called Southern
Confederacy”); De Long to Seward; Feb.
20, 1862 (“American Citizens”); De
Long to Commander of the Sloop of War
“Tuscarosa,” Feb. 20, 1862 (“I want
the presence”); De Long to Bargash,
Feb. 26, 1862; De Long to Seward, Feb.
27, 1862 (“at least three thousand”);
De Long to the French, Italian,
Swedish, Spanish, and Portuguese
Consuls in Tangier, March 1, 1862 (“If
temporary civil war”); De Long to
Seward, March 6, 1862 (“I have
heard”); De Long to Seward, March 20,
1862 (“Moorish authorities”).
FRUS, 1862: Bargash to
De Long, Feb. 25, 1862, pp. 863-64.
Official
Records of the Union and
Confederate Navies in the War of
the Rebellion, ser. 1,
vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1894),
pp. 310–20, 358–60, 392, 668, 676–79.
Raphael Simmes, Memoirs of a Service
Afloat (Baltimore:
Baltimore Publishing Co., 1887), pp.
334-35, 336 (“political ignorance”),
337–40. Jay Monaghan, Diplomat in Carpet
Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals
with Foreign Affairs
(Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1945),
pp. 215–17. On the Tangier lighthouse
convention, see Peter Larsen,
Theodore
Roosevelt and the Moroccan Crisis,
1904–1906 (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1984), p.
iv.
(8)
FRUS, 1861: Thayer to
Seward, July 20, 1861, p. 424; 1863,
vol. 2: Thayer to Seward, Nov. 5,
1862, p. 1101; 1864, vol. 4: Thayer to
Seward, Jan. 23, 1864, p. 405; Hale to
Seward, Oct. 22, 1864, p. 408
(“generous contribution”); 1864, vol.
1: Message of the President to the Two
Houses of Congress, Washington, Dec.
6, 1864, p. 4.
(9)
Studies in the National Military
Victories of Egypt
[Arabic]. Cairo: Ministry of
Information, 1984, pp. 153–63. FRUS,
1865, vol. 3: Hale to Seward, Aug. 26,
1865, p. 329 (“What the Pacha”).
Wright, United
States Policy toward
Egypt, pp. 63–65.
Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, pp. 25-26.
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, p. 385. Arnold
Blumberg, “William Seward and Egyptian
Intervention in Mexico,” Smithsonian Journal
of History 1 (Winter
1966-67): 31–34, 44-45. Howard Kerner,
“Turko-American Diplomatic Relations,
1860– 1880” (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown
Univ., 1948), pp.
62–65.
(10)
Allen C. Guelzo,
Abraham
Lincoln: Redeemer
President (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 1999), p. 434 (“How I
should like”). USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign
Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt, vol. 78: Seward
to Hale, Dec. 4, 1866; Seward to Hale,
Jan. 23, 1867 (“considerate and
friendly”). Osborn Oldroyd, The Assassination of
Abraham Lincoln (1901;
reprint, Union, N.J.: Lawbook
Exchange,2001), pp. 65, 232–35,239,
266. Edward Steers, Blood on the Moon:
The Assassination of Abraham
Lincoln (Lexington:
Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2001), pp.
231-32.
الفصل التاسع: الشماليون والجنوبيون على ضفاف نهر النيل
(1)
Zachary Karabell, Parting the
Desert:The Creation of
the Suez Canal (New York:
Knopf, 2003), p. 184 (“Practically
every”). David Christy, King Cotton
(Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, Keys, 1855),
pp. 68–79. Field, America and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 193-94 (“a
Southern plantation”), 248-49. The goats
given to Davis became the progenitors of
prize Angora herds in Texas and Oregon;
see Texas
Department of Agriculture,
http://www.agr.state.tx.us/education/teach/mkt_fibernet.htm,
and The First
Farmers of Oregon,
http://www.gesswhoto.com/centennial-farniers.html.
(2)
E. R. J. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian
Economy, 1820–1914 (London:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1969), pp. 89, 105.
Edward M. Earle, “Egyptian Cotton and the
American Civil War,” Political Science
Quarterly 41, no. 4 (Dec.
1926): 520–36. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign
Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt, vol. 78: William Seward
to William Thayer, Dec. 16, 1862 (“The …
increase of cotton”). FRUS, 1861:
Thayer to Seward, July 20, 1861, p. 423;
1863; vol. 2: Seward to Morris, Dec. 13,
1862, pp. 1090-91. Vatikiotis, History of
Egypt, pp. 73–77, 125–28.
Karabell, Parting
the Desert, pp. 183-84.
Wright, United
States Policy toward Egypt,
pp. 66–70.
(3)
Charles Dudley Warner,
Mummies and
Moslems (Toronto:
Belford Brothers, 1876), p. 380.
Wright, United States Policy toward
Egypt. pp. 86-87 (“shorten by 2,000
leagues”), 219. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign
Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt: W. L. Marcy to
Edwin de Leon, June 17, 1854
(“cheerfully received”). FRUS,
1861: Thayer to Seward, July 20, 1861,
p. 424; 1862, vol. 2: Thayer to
Seward, Nov. 5,1862, p. 1101; 1864,
vol. 4: Thayer to Seward, Jan. 23,
1864, p. 405; 1864, vol. 1: Message of
the President to the Two Houses of
Congress, Washington, Dec. 6, 1864, p.
4 (“Our relations with Egypt”); 1865,
vol. 3: Hale to Seward, Dec. 22, 1864,
p. 315.
(4)
Pierre Crabitès,
Americans
in the Egyptian Army
(London: Routledge, 1938), pp. 14, 39.
Charles Chaillé-Long, My Life in Four
Continents, vol. 1
(London: Hutchinson, 1912), pp. 17,
38, 231. William B. HesseLtine and
HazeL C. Wolf, The Blue and the Gray on the
Nile (Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1961), pp. 4 (“a
soldier of misfortune”), 5–11, 18-19,
29–41, 43-44. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
395-96.
(5)
John Marlowe, Spoiling the
Egyptians (New York: St.
Martin’s, 1975), pp. 104–17. Wright,
United
States Policy toward
Egypt, p.
70.
(6)
James Morris Morgan,
Recollections of a Rebel
Reefer (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1917), pp. 268-69 (“That was
about”), 270 (“An exact
reproduction”). Chaillé-Long,
My
Life, pp. 20–22, 30–33.
Crabités, Americans in the Egyptian
Army, pp. 41-42, 44.
Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the
Gray, pp. 65-66
(“discretion, devotion”), 72-73, 93-94
(“The East with its”), 98–100,
150-51.
(7)
William Wessels,
Born to Be
a Soldier: The Military Career of
William Wing Loring
(Fort Worth: Texas Christian Univ.
Press, 1971), p. 78-79. Hesseltine and
Wolf, Blue and
the Gray, pp. 19-20, 51
(“The limits”), 66–72, 87 (“the
express right” and “The army here”).
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 392-93, 397.
Wright, United
States Policy toward
Egypt, p. 81.
Chaillé-Long, My Life, p. 35. Morgan,
Recollections of a Rebel
Reefer, pp. 271 (“I
looked so much”), 287. See also Olive
Risley Seward, ed., William H. Seward’s
Travels around the World
(New York: Appleton, 1873), pp.
545-46, 620. Ralph Kirshner, The Class of 1861:
Custer, Ames, and Their Classmates
after West Point
(Carbondale: Southern ILLinois Univ.
Press, 1999), pp. 6, 167. Personal Memoirs of
U.S. Grant, vol. 1 (New
York: C. L. Webster, 1885), p.
181.
(8)
Morgan, Recollections of a
Rebel Reefer, pp.
277–81, 291 (“Christian prejudices”).
William Loring, A Confederate Soldier
in Egypt (New York:
Dodd, Mead, 1884), p. 69 (“the same
barbarous”), 135 (“born of the
sword”). Hesseltine and Wolf,
Blue and
the Gray, pp. 60 (“they
are better”), 61-62, 64-65 (“Christian
intolerance”), 89 (“The army, both
officers”), 106, 116-17, 125-26.
William Dye, Moslem Egypt and Christian
Abyssinia (New York:
Negro Universities Press, 1969), pp.
38-39, 45-46 (“imaginative soul”),
102.
(9)
Frederick J. Cox, “The
American Naval Mission in Egypt,”
Journal of
Modern History 26, no. 2
(June 1954). Hesseltine and Wolf,
Blue and
the Gray, pp. 123–27,
130–34, 144–46, 147 (“In the
philanthropist”), 220. Crabités,
Americans
in the Egyptian Army,
pp. 74 (“Although lam prostrate”), 77,
81.
(10)
Charles Chaillé-Long,
The Three
Prophets: Chinese Gordon, Mohammed
Ahmed (El Maahdi), Arabi
Pasha (New York:
Appleton, 1884), pp. 25–27, and
My
Life, pp. 68, 91
(“Prostrate upon their faces,”), 94
(“number of warriors”), 97 (“The
entire Nile”), 102–6, 158, 195 (“This
young officer”). H. E. Wortham,
Chinese
Gordon (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1933), p. 181. Godfrey Elton,
Gordon of
Khartoum (New York:
Knopf, 1955), pp. 127, 135 (“on what
he has done”). Crabités,
Americans
in the Egyptian Army,
pp. 110-11 (“Give it to them”),
134-35, 151–62, 167-68 (“American
pirate”), 167 (“My hair hung”), 185.
See also David Icenogle, “The
Expeditions of Chaille-Long,”
http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197806/the.expeditions.of.chaille-long.htm,
and “Americans in the Egyptian Army,”
http://www.home.earthlink.net/atomic_rom/officers.htm.
(11)
William Loring, “The
Egyptian Campaign in Abyssinia—From
the Notes of a Staff Officer,”
in
Littell’s Living Age 34,
no. 1729 (Aug. 4, 1877). Loring,
Confederate
Soldier in Egypt, p. 63
(“I need not repeat”). Hesseltine and
Wolf, Blue and
the Gray, pp.
176–82.
(12)
Loring, Confederate Soldier
in Egypt, pp. 416
(“morally and physically”), 417 (“a
splendid place”), 401 (“in any other
army”), 419 (“The Egyptians not
only”), 414 (“alive with the moving”),
420-21 (“hideous…howls”), 435 (“No
sooner had he”). Chaillé-Long,
My
Life, p. 195. Hesseltine
and Wolf, Blue
and the Gray, pp.
184–86, 194-95 (“Loring has
blockhouse”), 205, 211–13, 224-25.
Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel
Reefer, pp. 309-10. Dye,
Moslem
Egypt, pp. 167 (“as
shriveled with lechery”), 139-40
(“They escaped”), 219–22, 235, 270-71,
369 (“surgeons and sheiks”), 371 (“one
unsightly mass”), 483,
487-88.
(13)
FRUS, 1878: Farman to
Evarts, July 3, 1878, pp. 922-23;
Farman to Evarts, July 15, 1878, pp.
923-24. On the Ottomans’ purchase of
Civil War surplus, see FRUS,
1877: Mr. Maynard to Mr. Evarts
Constantinople, May 25, 1877, p. 572.
James Raab, W.
W. Loring (Manhattan,
Kan.: Sunflower Univ. Press, 1997),
pp. 833, 890. Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
312, 422 (“a crime against humanity”).
Loring, Confederate Soldier in
Egypt, p. 448 (“During
the ten years”). Hesseltine and Wolf,
Blue and
the Gray, pp. 213-14,
223, 229-30 (“The whole confounded”),
243–24 (“Egypt has been kind”), 251.
Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, p. 27.
Wessels, Born
to Be a Soldier, p. 94.
Wright, United
States Policy toward
Egypt, p. 83 (“No
intelligent foreigner”). Dye,
Moslem
Egypt, p. 1 (“They were
men”).
الفصل العاشر: نفيرُ الإقدام إلى العلا
(1)
Edward Wilmot Blyden,
Christianity,
Islam and the Negro Race
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1967),
pp. 6, 10 (“self-reliant, productive”),
13, 19–21, 186, 254. Edward Wilmot Blyden,
The Elements
of Permanent Influence: A Discourse
Delivered at the 15th Street
Presbyterian Church
(Washington, D.C.: R. I. Pendleton, 1890)
(“the spirit” and “Not the author”).
Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp.
230-31 (“with an awe”). Yvonne Chireau and
Nathaniel Deutsch, Black Zion: African American
Religious Encounters with
Judaism (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 2000), p. 15 (“I would
earnestly”). Edith Holden, Blyden of
Liberia (New York: Vantage
Press, 1966), pp. 141–44. Hollis Lynch, “A
Black Nineteenth Century Response to Jews
and Zionism: The Case of Edward Wilmot
Blyden, 1832–1912,” in Joseph Washington,
ed., Jews in Black
Perspective (Rutherford,
N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press,
1984), pp. 43–45. See also “Edward Wilmot
Blyden and Africanism in America,”
http://www.columbia.edu/hcb8/EWB_Museum/EWBl.html,
and George Bornstein, “A Forgotten
Alliance: Africans, Americans, Zionists
and Irish,” Times
Literary Supplement, March
4, 2005, p. 13.
(2)
FRUS, 1862: Morris to
Seward, Oct. 25, 1861, p. 787; Morris
to Seward, Oct. 16, 1862, p. 791;
1864, vol. 4: Morris to Seward, May
21, 1863, p. 368. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 151 (“The
providential history”), 170–76. Hanna
F. Wissa, Assiout: The Saga of an Egyptian
Family (Lewes, Sussex:
Book Guild, 1994), pp. 93, 97, 105.
Jessup, Fifty-three Years in
Syria, p. 512 (“could
place a Tammany”). Ellen Clare Miller,
Eastern
Sketches (New York: Arno
Press, 1977), pp. 132-33. Missionary
Herald, vol. 3: Letter
from Mr. Perkins, Dec. 26, 1862, p.
341 (“This great struggle”). Harry N.
Howard, “President Lincoln’s Minister
Resident to the Sublime Porte,”
Balkan
Studies 5 (1964):
205-6.
(3)
John A. DeNovo, American Interests
and Policies in the Middle East,
1900–1939 (Minneapolis:
Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1963), p.
15. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy,
p. 34 (“Mohammedans, Muscovites”).
Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 220-21
(“enjoy[ed] a liberty”), 272. Wright,
United
States Policy toward
Egypt, pp. 146-47 (“We
had the Gospel”), 219. The murderers
of the two missionaries, the Reverends
Merriam and Coffing, were later
apprehended and executed. As a sign of
gratitude, Secretary of State Seward
presented the Ottoman grand vizier
with a brace of silver pistols. See
FRUS, 1863, vol. 2:
Morris to Seward, April 30, 1863, p.
1094; 1864, vol. 4: Morris to Seward,
Dec. 4, 1863, p. 373; Seward to
Morris, Jan. 11, 1864, p. 366; Morris
to Seward, April 14, 1864, pp. 38
1–82.
(4)
Jessup, Fifty-three Years in
Syria, p. 597
(“semi-secular” and “letting in the
light”). Taylor, Lands of the
Saracen, p. 78. Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, p.
145 (“From the same battlefields”).
Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 134
(“more converts”). Henry M. Field,
From Egypt
to Japan, 19th ed. (New
York: Scribner 1905), p. 60
(“Christian
Missions”).
(5)
John Freely, A History of Robert
College (Istanbul:
Y.K.Y, 2000), pp. 11-12. “The History
of Robert College,”
http://www.robcol.k12.tr/admin/headmaster/history.htm.
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, pp. 355-56.
Hamlin, My
Life and Times, p. 286
(“The work has proved”), 446–49,
470–73. Marcia Stevens and Malcolm
Stevens, Against the Devil’s Current: The
Life and Times of Cyrus
Hamlin (Lanham, Md.:
Univ. Press of America, 1988), pp.
246, 258 (“No one was about”), 269,
297-98, 330-31. Khalaf, Persistence and
Change, p. 100.
(6)
Carleton Coon, ed.,
Daniel
Bliss and the Founding of the
American University of
Beirut (Washington,
D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1989),
pp. 35 (“Their faces”), 62-63, 67-68,
75 (“a home for jackals”), 79. Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, pp.
161-62 (“necessary choice”). Jessup,
Fifty-three
Years in Syria, p. 595
(“the promised land”). Penrose,
That They
May Have Life, p. 23.
Field, America
and the Mediterranean
World, p. 357 (“a man
white”).
(7)
Philip Hitti, Lebanon in History
from the Earliest Times to the
Present (London:
Macmillan, 1962), pp. 450, 454,
462–67. Albert
Hourani, Arabic Thought in the
Liberal Age, 1798–1939
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press,
1962), pp. 243, 246–49. Holden,
Blyden of
Liberia, pp. 143-44 (“to
the day”). Elie Kedourie, “The
American University of Beirut,”
Middle
Eastern Studies 3
(1966): 75. Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in
History (London:
Hutchinson’s Univ. Library, 1950), pp.
173-74. Abu Ghazaleh, American Missions in
Syria, pp. 31, 41-42,
59, 67-68. George Antonius, The Arab
Awakening (London:
Hamish Hamilton, 1938), pp. 42-43.
Missionary
Herald: “Recent
Intelligence” (Mr. Wolcott), Feb.
1841, p. 255. Daniel Bliss, Letters from a New
Campus: Written to His Wife Abby
and Their Four Children during
Their Visit to Amherst,
Massachusetts, 1873-1874
(Beirut: American Univ. of Beirut,
1994), pp. 159 (“Oh that all”),
280-81.
(8)
USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign
Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt: William Seward to
Charles Hale, Nov. 16, 1867. Glyndon
Van Deusen, William Henry Seward
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967),
pp. 212-13. FRUS, 1864, vol. 4:
Seward to McMath, Dec. 9, 1863, p. 410
(“exert all
proper”).
(9)
A
Maine Family’s History,
http://www.calaisalumni.org/Maine/tales9.htm
(“lips shut tight”). Reed M. Holmes,
The
Forerunners
(Independence, Mo.: Herald, 1981), pp.
189 (“The great Restitution”). John
Swift, Going
to Jericho (New York: A.
Roman, 1868), p. 201 (“Johnson’s
patent”). Vogel, To See a Promised
Land, pp. 135.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp.
181 (“The reign of Christ”), 182-83.
Shlomo Eidelberg, “The Adams Colony in
Jaffa (1866-1868),” Midstream
3 (Autumn 1957): 52-53. Peter Amann,
“Prophet in Zion: The Saga of George
J. Adams,” New
England Quarterly 37
(Dec. 1964):
481–86.
(10)
In his response to the
Reverend Monk, Lincoln also mentioned
that his chiropodist and close
confidant, Isachar Zacharie, was a Jew
who had “put me upon my feet” so often
that he would gladly aid the doctor’s
countrymen to “get a leg up” in moving
to Palestine. Peter Grose, Israel in the Mind of
America (New York:
Knopf, 1983), pp. 25-26 (“There can be
no”). See also Naphtali J. Rubinger,
Abraham
Lincoln and the Jews
(New York: Jonathon David, 1962), p.
42, Bertram Korn, American Jewry and
the Civil War (New York:
Jewish Publication Society of America,
1951), p. 202, and Steiner Religious
Beliefs, pp. 110–45.
Vogel, To See
a Promised Land, p. 203.
Little, American Orientalism,
p. 13 (“We know far more”). Henry
White Warren, Sights and Insights; or, Knowledge
by Travel (New York:
Nelson and Phillips, 1874), p. 246
(“This is the first country”). John
Russell Young, Around the World with General
Grant: A Narrative of the Visit of
General U. S. Grant, Ex-President
of the United States, to Various
Countries in Europe, Asia and
Africa, in 1877, 1878,
1879 (New York: American
News Co., 1879), p. 335 (“Somehow you
always”).
(11)
Vogel, To See a Promised
Land, p. 83 (“shall yet
be brought home”), 220 (“So much
has”). Princeton Review 38,
no. 4 (1866): 670–74. Warren,
Sights and
Insights, pp. 283-84
(“the greatest temptation”). Philip
Schaff, Through the Bible Lands
(New York: American Tract Society,
1878), pp. 233, 237, 249 (“squalid and
forbidding”). David S. Landes,
“Passionate Pilgrims and Others:
Visitors to the Holy Land in the 19th
Century,” in Davis, With Eyes toward
Zion, vol. 2, pp. 10-11.
Henry A. Riley, The Restoration at
the Second Coming of Christ: A
Summary of Millenarian
Doctrines (Philadelphia:
Lippincott, 1868), pp. 41-42 (“be
gathered from”). Sarah Barclay
Johnson, Hadji
in Syria (New York: Arno
Press, 1977), pp. 16 (“rightful
owner”), 119 (“the Hebrew race”).
William C. Prime, Tent Life in the Holy
Land (New York: Harper,
1857), pp. 2 (“cast in holy
radiance”), 99-100 (“imported by
Jaffa”). Henry W. Bellows, Restatement of
Christian Doctrines in 25
Sermons (Boston:
American Unitarian Association, 1869).
Holmes, Forerunners, p. 19
(“The sons of
Ephraim”).
(12)
Amann, “Prophet in Zion,”
p. 486 (“he would rather”). Eidelberg,
“Adams Colony in Jaffa,” pp. 55–60.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, p.
183 (“The exhala tions”) Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 281, 325 (“churches, hotels”).
Holmes, Forerunners, pp.
119–21, 187 (“Put your faith”). Vogel,
To See a
Promised Land, pp. 138
(“adventure; a charlatan”), 139 (“our
warmest friends”), 140-41, 144 (“a
monster in human”), 145-46, 147 (“We
the colony”). Henry W. Bellows,
The Old
World in Its New Face
(New York: Harper, 1869), pp. 262-63
(“religious fanatic”). Charles Elliot,
Remarkable
Characters and Places in the Holy
Land (Hartford: J. B.
Burr, 1867), p. 586 (“unprotected as
they would be”). Swift, Going to
Jericho, pp. 197-98
(“modern Mayflower”), 199-200
(“American eagle”), 201. On the death
of Walter Cresson, see USNA, RG 59,
Dispatches from U.S. Consuls.
Jerusalem, Palestine: Page to Cass,
Nov. 8, 1860.
(13)
National Library of
Israel, Jerusalem, Manuscript Archive,
Miscellaneous File 519: Petition of
Colonists to Governor Chamberlain,
Aug. 31, 1867. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign
Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt, vol. 4: William
Seward to Charles Hale, Oct. 7, 1867;
RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls.
Beirut, Lebanon, vol. 5: Letter for
Jaffa Colonists to Beauboucher, March
20, 1867 (“How can we confide”);
Records of
Foreign Service Posts: Jerusalem,
Palestine. March 8,
1857–Dec. 21, 1869, vol. 24: Johnson
to Beauboucher, Dec. 3, 1867. Lipman,
“American-Holy Land Material,” pp.
32-33 (“The failure of the”). Vogel,
To See a
Promised Land, pp. 140
(“pale faced”), 147 (“recede and
become”), 149. Obenzinger, American
Palestine, pp. 184-85
(“American citizens). Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, p.
326 (“An Appeal!”). Eidelberg, “Adams
Colony in Jaffa,” p. 61. Holmes,
Forerunners, p.
226.
الفصل الحادي عشر: الهجوم الأمريكي
(1)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from
the U.S. Consuls. Alexandria, Egypt, vol.
2: De Leon to Appleton, July 5, 1859.
Vogel, To See a
Promised Land, pp. 56, 59
(“The number of American”). Charles Dudley
Warner, Mummies
and Moslems (Toronto:
Belford, 1876), p. 382 (“the perfumes of
Arabia”). Jeffrey Alan Melton, Mark Twain, Travel
Books, and Tourism; The Tide of a
Great Popular Movement
(Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press,
2002), pp. 17, 18 (“nomadic era”). Kark,
“Annual Reports,” p. 164 (“unfavorable for
the foreigner”). The Memoirs of Rose
Eytinge (New York:
Frederick A. Stoke; 1905), p. 151 (“most
irksome”). Schaff, Through the Bible Lands,
p. 26. Goldman, God’s Sacred Tongue, pp.
160-61 (“The few Englishmen”). Field,
From Egypt to
Japan, pp. 7-8 (“Ah, you
Americans”).
(2)
Warner, Mummies and
Moslems, pp. 357
(“Antiquity” Smith), 411 (“the conclusive
verdict”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land,
pp. 88 (“with few ideas” and “These
cousins”), 91-92 (“miserable fellaheen”),
177. Crabités, Americans in the Egyptian
Army, p. 65 (“They usually
come” and “They often think”). Morgan,
Recollections
of a Rebel Reefer, p. 267.
Young, Around the
World, pp. 301-2 (“Powell
Tucker,”). Journals of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, ed. Edward
Emerson, vol. 10 (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1914), pp. 406, 407-8 (“The
people…are”), 409 (“The lateen sail”).
Frederick Douglass, Autobiographies (New York:
Library of America, 1994), pp. 1006
(“combat American prejudice”), 1007 (“half
brothers”).
(3)
Papers of William H.
Seward, reel 58: Seward to Johnson,
Sept. 28, 1859; “Governor Seward’s
Journey from Egypt to Palestine,”
New York
Daily Tribune, Dec. 24,
1859, p. 5. Thornton Kirkland Lothrop,
William
Henry Seward (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1896), pp. 396-97.
George E. Bake; ed., The Life of William
H. Seward with Selections from His
Works (New York: J. S.
Redfield, 1855), p. 224 (“To the
oppressed masses”). Frederic Bancroft,
The Life of
William H. Seward, vol.
2 (New York: Harpers, 1899), pp.
521–23. Walter LaFeber, The Cambridge History
of American Foreign
Relations, vol. 2,
The
American Search for Opportunity,
1865–1913 (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), p. 10.
William H.
Seward’s Travels around the
World, pp. 525–32, 616
(“double thralldom”), 634-35 (“former
chief minister”), 654-55 (“a
remarkable rabbi”). USNA, RG 84,
Records of
Foreign Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt, vol. 78: Seward
to Hale, Jan. 5, 1867. Olive Risley
Seward, Around
the World Stories
(Boston: D. Lothrop, 1889), pp.
265-80, 281 (“It used to be”), 282
(“It is not enough),
283–86.
(4)
George B. McClellan, “A
Winter on the Nile,” Scribner’s
Monthly 13, no. 3 (Jan.
1877): 368–83; 13, no. 4 (March 1877):
670–77; “The Bombardment of
Alexandria,” North American Review
142, no. 355 (June 1886): 593 (“so
long as we”), 594 (“little but
life”).
(5)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Cairo, Egypt, vol.
2: Beardsley to Fish, Jan. 22, 1872.
William T. Sherman Family Papers,
CSHR9/59: Sherman to Thomas Sherman,
March 29, 1872 (“Their Faith in
Mohamet” and “the most repulsive”).
Michael Fellman, Citizen Sherman: A
Life of William Tecumseh
Sherman (New York:
Random House, 1995), p. 307 (“a
hard-looking” and “undertake to
move”). Morgan, Recollections of a
Rebel Reefer, p. 266.
Chaillé-Long, My Life, p. 231.
Memoirs of
Rose Eytinge, p. 201. J.
C. Audenreid, “General Sherman in
Europe and the East,” Harper’s New Monthly
Magazine 47, no. 280
(Sept. 1873): 232, 234-35, 236, 240,
486–95.
(6)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Cairo, Egypt, vol.
5: Farman to Evarts, Feb. 12, 1878.
The Papers
of Julia Dent Grant, ed.
John Simon (New York: Putnam, 1975),
pp. 220 (“One might easily think”),
221 (“We had only to clap”), 222-23,
224 (“One could not but”). Vogel,
To See a
Promised Land, pp. 54-55
(“the most remarkable journey”).
Young, Around
the World, pp. 257
(“Welcome General Grant”), 299. Elbert
Farman, Along
the Nile with General
Grant (New York: Grafton
Press, 1904), pp. 26, 32-33, 92, 99.
William McFeely, Grant (New
York: Norton, 1981), pp. 466-67.
Geoffrey Perret, Ulysses S.
Grant (New York: Random
House, 1997), p. 454 (“It looks as if”
and “I have seen”). Dye, Moslem
Egypt, p. 491. Wessels,
Born to Be
a Soldier, pp. 80-81
(“Why there’s Loring”). Hesseltine and
Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 232-33
(“I wouldn’t sit
down”).
(7)
Papers of Julia Dent
Grant, p. 233 (“a
gorgeous gleaming” and “a poor
place”). Vogel, To See a Promised
Land, p. 149. Young,
Around the
World, pp. 234-35, 329,
351. McFeely, Grant, p. 467. Perret,
Ulysses S.
Grant, p. 454. Steiner,
Religious
Beliefs, pp. 71-76. See
also William N. Still, American Sea Power in
the Old World: The United States
Navy in European and Near Eastern
Waters, 1865–1917
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980), p.
76.
(8)
References to “Cairo,”
“Turk,” “Arab,” and “Arabian Nights”
in Twain’s writing, can be located on
Mark Twain
and His Times,
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/railton/about/srchmtf.html.
Mark Twain website,
http://www.boondocksnet.com/twaintexts/letters/letter67O607.html:
Letter to Jane Clemens and Family,
June 7, 1867 (“tired of staying”).
“Mark Twain’s Correspondence with the
San Franciso Alta California,”
http://www.twainquotes.com/altaindex.html:
April 9, 1867 (“Isn’t it a most
attractive”). Dayton Duncan and
Geoffrey C. Ward, Mark Twain: An
Illustrated Biography
(New York: Knopf, 2001), pp. 10,48
(“the necessary stock “), 54
(“permanently miserable”), 60-61. Mark
Twain, The
Innocents Abroad; or, The New
Pilgrims’ Progress: Being Some
Account of the Steamship Quaker
City’s Pleasure Excursion to Europe
and the Holy Land
(Pleasantville, N.Y.: Reader’s Digest
Association, 1990), pp. 11 (“picnic on
a gigantic,” “scamper about the
decks,” and “green spectacles”), 17
(“The Synagogue”), 418 (“a funeral
without”). Albert Bigelow Paine,
Mark Twain:
A Biography: The Personal and
Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne
Clemens (New York:
Harper; 1912), pp.
324–31.
(9)
Twain, Innocents
Abroad, pp. 51 (“Tangier
is a foreign”), 52 (“The emperor of
Morocco”), 53 (“Christian dogs”), 54
(“thinks he has five” and “They slice
around”), 56, 419 (“strange horde”),
424 (“Travel is
fatal”).
(10)
Twain, Innocents
Abroad, pp. 80-81 (“a
short;stout”), 228 (“in all the
outrageous”), 229 (“the three-legged
woman”), 233, 239 (“nothing of
romance”), 262 (“The picture lacks”),
290-91 (“an island of pearls”), 284,
289-90 (“wretched nest”), 303
(“couldn’t smile”), 351 (“To glance
at”).
(11)
Twain, Innocents
Abroad, pp. 302 (“The
gods of my”), 306, 311, 317 (“If all
the poetry”), 319-20, 324, 332
(“frescoed … with disks”), 342, 358,
361, 385, 391. Paine, Mark
Twain, pp. 333-36, 337 (“Is
it any wonder”), 338, 394 (“hopeless,
dreary”). Justin Kaplan, Mr. Clemens and Mr.
Twain (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 1966), p.
52.
(12)
USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign
Service Posts. Cairo,
Egypt, vol. 78: William
Seward to Charles Hale, Oct. 30, 1867.
Twain, Innocents Abroad, pp.
1397-98 (“shamefully humbugged”), 401
(“Palestine is no more”), 406
(“American vandals”). Mark Twain
website,
http://www.boondocksnet.com/twaintexts/letters/Ietter670607.html:
Twain to the San Francisco Alta
California, Jan. 8, 1868
(“Moorish haiks”). Paine, Mark
Twain, p. 341 (“gospel of
sincerity”). Kaplan, Mr. Clemens and Mr.
Twain, p. 233.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp.
x (“right along with”), 188,
256.
(13)
“A Short History of the
Shrine,”
http://www.shrinershq.org/shrine/shorthistory.html.
Eric Davis, “Representations of the
Middle East at American World Fairs,
1876–1904,” in Amanat and
Bernhardsson, eds., United States and the
Middle East, pp. 352-53,
354 (“the oldest peopLe”), 355–58, 359
(“from
Tangiers”).
الفصل الثاني عشر: الصحوة
(1)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Damascus: Johnson
to Seward, April 3, 1867 (“that
Americans sympathize”); Governor
General of Syria to John son, Oct. 3,
1868; Johnson to Seward, Oct. 10,
1868; Johnson to Seward, July 22,
1868; Johnson [L.] to Johnson [A],
Oct. 31, 1868; Johnson to Seward, Nov.
12, 1868; Dillon to Johnson, Dec.19,
1868; Johnson to Seward, Dec. 31,
1868. New
York Times, Dec. 7,
1880.
(2)
FRUS, 1880: Evarts to
Fairchild, March 12, 1880, pp. 893-94.
USNA, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls,
Tangiers: Cohen to Mathews, May 5,
1880 (“It is to America”); Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Jerusalem: Meizel,
Alexander and Lipkin to deHass, May 3,
1877. Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, pp. 29, 47.
Brainerd Dyer, The Public Career of William M.
Evarts (Berkeley: Univ.
of California Press, 1933), pp.
217-18. Cyrus Adler, Jews in the
Diplomatic Correspondence of the
United States
(Baltimore: Friedenwald, 1906), pp.
39–45. Ron Bartur, “American Consular
Assistance to the Jewish Community of
the Land of Israel at the End of the
Ottoman Period to the Outbreak of
World War 1, 1856–1914 [Hebrew]”
(Hebrew Univ., 1984), p. 364 (“The
stars and
stripes”).
(3)
David Harris, Britain and the
Bulgarian Horrors of
1876 (Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1939), p. 410 (“In
Paniguischte”). New York
Times, Sept. 9, 1876
(“the remains of babes”). Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
pp. 365–72. Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, pp. 29-30.
Sir Edwin Pears, Forty Years in
Constantinople,
1873–1915 (New York: Appleton, 1916),
pp. 16–18.
(4)
Marty H. Krout, ed.,
Lew
Wallace: An
Autobiography (New York:
Harper, 1906), pp. 962-63. See also
“Meet Lew Wallace: American Minister
to Turkey, 1881–1885,” on
http://www.ben-hus.com/meet_ambassador.html.
(5)
FRUS, 1877: Mr. Maynard
to Mr. Evarts, Nov. 26, 1877, p. 141;
1878, Mr. Heap to Mr. Hunter, Jan. 25,
1878, pp. 929–31; 1879: Farman to
Evarts, May 22, 1879, p. 1003 (“long
remain”); Message of the President,
Dec. 1, 1879, p. xiv (“a generous
mark”); 1880, Farman to Evarts, May 5,
1880, pp. 1108–12. Elbert Eli Farman,
“Negotiating for the Obelisk,”
Century
Illustrated Monthly
Magazine 24 (Oct. 1882):
882-83 (“The population,” “another
souvenir,” and “It is not for”).
Elbert Farman, Egypt and Its Betrayal
(New York: Grafton Press, 1908), pp.
148-49, 166. Seaton Schroeder,
Fifty Years
of Naval Service (New
York: Appleton, 1922), pp. 133–36,
140–43. Labib Habachi, The Obelisks of
Egypt (Cairo: American
Univ. in Cairo Press, 1984), pp.
176–78, 181-82. Bob Brier, “Saga of
Cleopatra’s Needles,” Archaeology 55, no. 6
(Nov.–Dec. 2002): 48–51. Martina
D’Alton, The
New York Obelisk (New
York: Metropolitan Museum of Art,
1993), pp. 2, 11 (“point the finger”
and “It would be absurd”), 16–21, 63.
James Field, “Near East Notes and Far
East Queries,” in John Fairbank, ed.,
The
Missionary Enterprise in China and
America (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press,
1974).
الباب الرابع: عصر الاستعمار
الفصل الثالث عشر: فجر الإمبراطوريات
(1)
Conn, “John Porter
Brown,” pp. 10-11. USNA, RG 59,
Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Algiers,
Algeria: Lee to French Consul, Feb.
20, 1830 (“the Frenchman”); Lee to Van
Buren, July 15, 1830; Porter to Van
Buren, Sept. 22, 1830. Haight,
Letters
from the Old World, pp.
260, 262. FRUS, 1882: Wallace to
Frelinghuysen, Feb. 1, 1882, p. 501.
Akira lriye, From Nationalism to
Internationalism: U.S. Foreign
Policy to 1914 (London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 65
(“we cannot follow”). Potts, “National
Boasting,” New
York Times, Nov. 26,
1852. E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire,
1875–1914 (New York:
Pantheon, 1987), p. 59.
(2)
USNA, RG 59; Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Tunis: Fish to
Hunter April 22, 1881 (“It looks as
though”); Fish to Hunter May 5, 1881
(“In plain Anglo-Saxon”). David M.
Pletcher, The
Awkward Years: American Foreign
Relations under Garfield and
Arthur (Columbia: Univ.
of Missouri Press, 1962), pp. 224-25
(“Civilization gains”). General Lewal,
“The French Army,” Harper’s New Monthly
Magazine 82, no. 491
(April 1891):
657.
(3)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Cairo, Egypt:
Beardsley to Page, April 24, 1874;
Beardsley to Fish, Dec. 11, 1875.
Wright, United
States Policy toward
Egypt, pp. 92, 108-9
(“What folly”), 120, 123. Adam Badeau,
“The Bombardment of Alexandria,”
North
American Review 142, no.
355 (June 1886): 592. “American Trade
Opportunities in Egypt Destroyed,”
Los Angeles
Times, July 26, 1882, p.
2 (“shameful act”). “A Mohammedan
Revival,” New
York Times, Sept. 22,
1881, p. 4 (“fanatic … Arabs”); “The
Conquest of Egypt,” Sept. 15, 1882, p.
4 (“everlasting shame”); “The Bondage
of Egypt,” Feb. 6, 1882, p. 4
(“taxation without
representation”).
(4)
Chaillé-Long, My Life,
pp. 245-48, 251, 259 (“In the sea”),
271 (“Men, women”), 302-3 (“We
dominate”), 307 (“the Americans …
who”). Still, American Sea Power, pp.
83-84, 85 (“I corralled”), 86-87.
Frederick J. Cox, “Arabi and Stone:
Egypt’s Military Rebellion, 1882,”
Cahiers
d’Histoire Egyptienne 8
(April 1956): 173-74. Messages and Papers
of the Presidents,
1789–1897 , vol. 8, ed.
James D. Richardson (New York: Bureau
of National Literature, 1917): Second
Annual Address of Chester Arthur to
Congress, Dec. 4, 1882, p. 126.
FRUS, 1882: Sackville
West to Frederick I Frelinghuysen,
Sept. 17, 1882, p. 325 (“sailors and
marines”).
(5)
Farman, Egypt and Its
Betrayal, pp. 286 (“evil
genius”), 289 (“Shylock”), 290
(“aggressive European Powers”), 302
(“He was the idol”), 303 (“instigated
by”). Egyptian State Information
Service, “Orabi Pasha,”
http://216.239.41.104/search?q=cache:O8sDNNWobzsJ:www.sis.gov.eg/calendar/html/c1310397.htm+orabi&hl=en&start=2.
For a reference to the Arabic roots of
the name “‘Urabi,” see Hans Wehr,
A
Dictionary of Modern Written
Arabic (Beirut:
Librairie du Liban, 1980), p.
601
(6)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Cairo: Wolf to
Blaine, Sept. 12, 1881 (“act
cautiously”); Wolf to Blaine, Sept.
15, 1881 (“Here on this”); Wolf to
Blaine, Oct. 29, 1881 (“the natives
and owners”); Wolf to Blaine, Nov. 11,
1881 (“in no way”); Urabi to Wolf
(n.d.) (“management and wisdom”); Wolf
to Frelinghuysen, March 21, 1882
(“There is scarcely”). Esther L.
Panitz, Simon
Wolf: Private Conscience and Public
Image (Rutherford:
Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press,
1987), pp. 71–78. Selected Addresses
and Papers of Simon Wolf
(New York: Bloch, 1926), pp. 15-16.
Simon Wolf, The Presidents I Have Known from
1860–1918 (Washington,
D.C.: Byron S. Adams, 1918), pp.
124–30.
(7)
Cox, “Arabi and Stone,”
pp. 155–58. Charles P. Stone, “Stone
Pacha and the Secret Dispatch,”
Journal of
the Military Service Institution of
the United States 8, no.
29 (March 1887): 95. Fanny Stone, “The
Diary of an American Girl in Cairo
during the War of 1882,” Century Illustrated
Monthly Magazine 28, no.
2 (June 1883): 29 (“quietly eating”),
43 (“death to the Christians”), 38
(“There never lived”), 34 (“be
brave”), 45 (“For once”). Crabitès,
Americans
in the Egyptian Army, p.
263. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S.
Consuls, Cairo: Gomanos to
Frelinghuysen, July 23,
1882.
(8)
Chaillé-Lorig, My Life,
pp. 139 (“Egypt for the Egyptians”),
201 (“a very bad soldier”). Farman,
Egypt and
Its Betrayal, p. 333
(“Tel el-Kebir”). USNA, RG 59,
Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo:
Wolf to Blaine, Oct. 29, 1881 (“The
cup is full”). Later in life, Wolf
seems to have altered his opinion of
the British administration in Egypt,
crediting it with bringing it into
“new light.” See Wolf, Presidents I Have
Known, p.
134.
(9)
Cox, “Arabi and Stone,”
p. 158 (“Egypt had become”). Berntd A.
Weisberger, Statue of Liberty: The First
Hundred Years (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 22-23
(“Granite beings”), 24-25, 33.
Willadene Price, Bartholdi and the
Statue of Liberty
(Chicago: Rand McNally, 1959), pp.
27–29, 42–45, 63–65, 119-20. Marvin
Trachtenberg, The Statue of Liberty
(New York; Penguin, 1986), pp. 46,
53-54, 57. Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 56 (“When
will you turn”).
(10)
On the use of the Middle
East model by American imperialists in
the Far East, see Field, “Near East
Notes,” pp. 24 (“The Muslim
societies”), 25–27. Field also makes
the remarkable observation (p. 41)
that “all the countries in which women
have recently exercised significant
political power—Israel, India, Ceylon,
and China—were nineteenth-century
targets of American missionary
endeavor” Mark Twain, “An
Anti-Imperialist,” New York
Herald, Oct. 15,
1900.
الفصل الرابع عشر: تقوى الإمبراطورية
(1)
Eve Merriam, The Voice of Liberty:
The Story of Emma
Lazarus (New York:
Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1959), pp.
140-41. Mark A. Raider, The Emergence of
American Zionism (New
York: New York Univ. Press, 1998), pp.
12 (“We consider ourselves”), 70-71
(“Wake, Israel”). Bette Roth Young,
“Emma Lazarus and Her Jewish Problem,”
American
Jewish History 84 (Dec.
1996): 299 (“opens up such”), 309 (“a
home for” and “artisans, warriors”).
Martin Feinstein, American Zionism,
1884–1904(New York:
Herzl Press, 1965), pp. 18, 58-59.
Emma Lazarus, “Epistle to the
Hebrews,” American Hebrew 13
(Feb. 2, 1883): 137; “The Jewish
Problem,” Century illustrated Monthly
Magazine 36, no. 6 (Feb.
1883). Daniel Maroin, “Who Is the
‘Mother of Exiles’?: Jewish Aspects of
Emma Lazarus’s The New Colossus,”
Prooftexts 20, no. 3
2000: 250 (“renew their youth”). Abram
S. lsaacs, “Will the Jews Return to
Palestine,” Century 26, no. 1 (May
1883). See also Ranen Omer-Sherman,
“Emma Lazarus, Jewish American
Poetics, and the Challenge of
Modernity,” Journal of American Women
Writers 19 (2003).
Gregory Eiselein, “Emotion and the
Jewish Historical Poems of Emma
Lazarus,” Mosaic 37 (2004).
Arthur Zeiger, “Emma Lazarus and
Pre-Herzlian Zionism,” in Shulamit
Reinharz and Mark A. Raider; eds.,
American
Jewish Women and the Zionist
Enterprise (Waltham,
Mass.: Brandeis Univ. Press, 2004),
pp. 13–17.
(2)
T. DeWitt Talmage,
Talmage on
Palestine (New York: W.
D. Rowland, 1890), pp. 7, 10 (“that
curse of nations”), 24 (“All the
fingers” and “They would be foolish”).
John Rusk, The
Authentic Life of T. DeWitt
Talmage (New York: L. G.
Stahl, 1902), pp. 79–82, 104, 125-26.
Handy, Holy
Land, pp. 125–28. See
also T. DeWitt Talmage, New Tabernacle
Sermons (New York:
George Munro, 1886).
(3)
William E. Blackstone,
Jesus Is
Coming (Chicago: Revell,
1908), pp. 240-41. Paul Charles
Merkley, The
Politics of Christian Zionism,
1891–1948 (London: Frank
Cass, 1998), pp. 60–63, 69–71.
Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp.
268-69. Vogel, To See a Promised Land,
pp. 228-29. The full text of the
Blackstone Memorial can be found in
Joseph Celleni, ed., Christian
Protagonists for Jewish
Restoration (New York:
Arno Press, 1977), pp.
13-14.
(4)
In his first State of the
Union Address, in 1885, Giover
Cleveland assailed the Porte for its
attempts to impose “religious tests as
a condition of residence [in
Palestine],” but otherwise refrained
from endorsing the Jewish state idea.
See Messages
and Papers of the Presidents:
1789–1897, vol. 8
(Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1898), p. 335.
FRUS, 1882: Wallace to
Said Pasha, June 3, 1882, p. 508;
Ascher and Weinberg to Wallace, June
13, 1882, pp. 517-18; 1885: Bayard to
Cox, Oct. 15, 1885, p. 871; 1888:
Straus to Said Pasha, May 17, 1888, p.
1589 (“inquisitorial”); Rives to
Gilman, Oct. 12, 1888, p. 1618; 1898:
Straus to Hay, Nov. 22, 1898, p. 1092.
Merle Curti, American Philanthropy
Abroad (New Brunswick:
Rutgers Univ. Press, 1963), p. 108.
Jacob M. Landau and Kemal Mim Oke,
“Ottoman Perspectives on American
Interests in the Holy Land,” in Davis,
With Eyes
toward Zion, vol. 2, pp.
269–72. Cyrus Adler, Jacob H. Schiff: His
Life and Letters, vol. 2
(London: William Heinemann, 1929), pp.
162-63. Naomi Wiener Cohen, A Dual Heritage: The
Public Career of Oscar S.
Straus (Philadelphia:
Jewish Publication Society of America,
1969), pp. 88-89, 171, 283. Regina S.
Sharif, Non-Jewish Zionism: Its Roots in
Western History (London:
Zed Press, 1983), pp.
92-93.
(5)
Bertha Spafford Vester,
Our
Jerusalem: An American Family in
the Holy City (1950;
reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977),
pp. 56-57, 63 (“American-made”), 98
(“He taught me”), 134, 158. Vogel,
To See a
Promised Land, pp. 114
(“post-Protestant period”), 152-53
(“When sorrows”), 155 (“hoping to
be”).
(6)
Supporters of the
American Colony were also instrumental
in securing the recall of Merrill’s
successor, Edwin S. Wallace. Wallace
accused Mrs. Spafford of holding “such
power over her victims as to make them
swear to be true what they know to be
false,” and of “doing much harm to
injure the good name of America in
this part of the world.” See USNA, RG
59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls.
Jerusalem: Wallace to Cridler, Dec. 7,
1897; Merrill to Wharton; Oct. 3, 1891
(“one of the wildest”); Merrill to
Quincy, Aug. 17, 1893; Merrill to
Cridler, Jan. 30, 1899; Merrill to
Cridler, July 8, 1901 (“They hate the
United”). Shalom Goldman, “The Holy
Land Appropriated: The Careers of
Selah Merrill, Nineteenth Century
Christian Hebraist, Palestine
Explorer, and U.S. Consul in
Jerusalem,” American Jewish History
85, no. 2 (June 1997): 152–67. Ruth
Kark, “Annual Reports,” pp. 173-74.
Alexander Fume Ford, “Our American
Colony at Jerusalem,” Appleton’s
Magazine 8 (1906):
643–55.
(7)
Carl Dolmetsch, “Our Famous
Guest”—Mark Twain in
Vienna (Athens: Univ. of
Georgia Press, 1992), pp. 45, 128–31,
25, 270. Cynthia Ozick, “Mark Twain
and the Jews,” Commentary 99, no. 5
(May 1995): 56–62. Theodore Herzl,
“Mark Twain and the British Ladies: A
Feuilleton,” Commentary 28, no. 3
(Sept. 1959): 243-44 (“a short,
spare”). Twain, Innocents
Abroad, p. 324. Amos
Elon, Herzl (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1975), pp. 66,
245. Obenzinger, American
Palestine, pp. 266 (“The
difference between the brain”), 267-68
(“If that concentration”). “Concerning
the Jews” first appeared in Harper’s New Monthly
Mazagine in Sept. 1899;
see also Charles Neider, ed.,
The
Complete Essays of Mark
Twain (Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1963), pp. 235–50;
and Dan Vogel, Mark Twain’s Jews
(Jersey City, N.J.: KTAV Publishing
House, 2006), pp.
61–88.
(8)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Cairo: Wolf to
Frelinghuysen, March 25, 1882. Field,
America and
the Mediterrd’nean
World, p. 350. Tibawi,
American
Interests in Syria, pp.
249-50, 275. DeNovo, American
Interests, pp. 9, 13-14,
18, 31. Kaplan, Arabistsf,
pp. 39-40. Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 21.
Wright, United
States Policy toward
Egypt, p. 229
(“Americans occupy
Egypt”).
(9)
American diplomatic
records are rife with correspondence
describing assaults on, and even the
murder of, missionaries. See, e.g.,
FRUS, 1901:
Negotiations for the Settlement of
Indemnity Claims of United States
Citizens, Hay to Straus, Jan. 11,
1900, p. 906. Laurie, Ely
Volume, pp. 84, 457. Cagri
Erhan, “Ottoman Official Attitudes
towards American Missionaries” in
Amanat and Bernhardsson, eds.,
United
States and the Middle
East, pp. 317–19. Vogel,
To See a
Promised Land, pp.
116-17. Tibawi, American Interests in
Syria, pp. 237, 269 (“In
the war”), 275, 280. DeNovo, American
Interests, pp. 12, 35
(“No man ever came”), 42. Wright,
United
States Policy toward
Egypt, p. 331. Field,
America and
the Mediterranean World,
p. 437. Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, pp. 30-31
(“modern
missionaries”).
(10)
J. Christy Wilson,
Apostle to
Islam: A Biography of Samuel M.
Zwemer (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Baker Book House, 1952), pp.
40–44, 72-73. Henry Harris Jessup,
The Setting
of the Crescent and the Rising of
the Cross; or, Kamil Abdul Messiah,
a Syrian Convert from Islam to
Christianity
(Philadelphia: Westminster Press,
1898), pp. 51–53, 65, 72, 127, 137–39,
143. Alfred DeWitt Mason and Frederick
J. Barny, History of the Arabian
Mission (New York: Board
of Foreign Missions Reformed Church in
America, 1926), pp. 76-77, 86 (“very
heart of Islam”), 90-91. Samuel Zwemer
and James Cantine, The Golden Milestone:
Reminiscences of Pioneer Days Fifty
Years Ago in Arabia (New
York: Revell, 1938), pp. 18-19, 30,
43, 92, 135. A. E. Zwemer and S. M.
Zwemer, Zigzag
Journeys in the Camel Country:
Arabia in Picture and
Story (New York: Revell,
1911), pp. 27, 31 (“Pioneer
journeys”), 50, 92, 103 (“A country
[without]”). Paul W. Harrison,
Doctor in
Arabia (London: Robert
Hale, 1943), p. 264. Stuart Knee,
“Anglo-American Relations in
Palestine, 1919–1925: An Experiment in
Realpolitik,” Journal of American Studies of
Turkey 5 (1997): 5
(“American
religious-philanthropic”).
(11)
Josiah Strong, Our Country: Its
Possible Future and Its Present
Crisis (New York:
American Home Mission Society, 1885),
pp. 218-19. USNA, RG 59, Diplomatic
Instructions of the Department of
State, Persia: Bayard to Pratt, Aug.
23, 1887; Bayard to Pratt, July 7,
1886. FRUS, 1881: Foster to
Blaine, May 21, 1881, pp. 1016-17;
Vol. XLII, 1883: Benjamin to
Felinghuysen, June 13, 1883, pp. 703–6
(“the most brilliant”); 1886, Pratt to
Bayard, Nov. 29, 1886, p. 913 (“iron,
coal, copper”); 1887: Pratt to Bayard,
May 4, 1887, pp. 916-17. Bryson,
American
Diplomatic Relations,
pp. 39-40. Abraham Yeselson, United States—Persia
Diplomatic Relations,
1883–1921 (New
Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1956),
pp. 23–25. Palmer; Guardians of the
Gulf, pp. 6–9. DeNovo,
American
Interests, pp. 296-97.
Michael Zirinsky, “American
Presbyterian Missionaries at Urmia
during the Great War,” Journal of Assyrian
Academic Studies 12, no.
1 (April 1998):
8–11.
(12)
Field, “Near East Notes,”
pp. 51, 54. Still, American Sea
Power, pp. 79 (“The
wayward Turks”), 103-4 (“Even the
head”).
(13)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from the U.S. Consuls, Erzerum:
Chilton to Use, Oct. 9, 1895.
New York
Times, Dec. 28, 1894
(“if not by”). Peter Balakian,
The Burning
Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and
America’s Response (New
York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 11
(“Armenian Holocaust”), 23, 64, 73,
93. Arman Kirakossian, ed., The Armenian
Massacres, 1894–1896: U.S. Media
Testimony (Detroit:
Wayne State Univ. Press, 2004), pp. 37
(“blot upon civilization”), 47 (“Not
all the perfume”). Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 43 (“the
demon of damnable”). Clyde E.
Buckingham, Clara Barton: A Broad
Humanity (Alexandria,
Va.: Mount Vernon Publishing, 1977),
p. 262 (“the
warships”).
(14)
Angell later served as
president of the University of
Michigan, where an impressive hall
still bears his name. FRUS,
1900: Griscom to Hay, Dec. 12, 1900,
p. 515. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from
U.S. Consuls, Constantinople: Judson
Smith to Olney, Nov. 19, 1895; Olney
to Terrill; Jan. 16, 1896. Frederick
Davis Greene, Armenian Massacres; or, The Sword
of Mohammed
(Philadelphia: National Publishers
Co., 1896), p. xvii (“The policy of
the United”). Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, pp. 41–44, 45
(“rattle the Sultan’s”). Kirakossian,
Armenian
Massacres, p. 71
(“Yankees of the Orient”). Erhan,
“Ottoman Official Attitudes,” p. 332.
Still, American Sea Power, pp.
99-100, 105-6, 107. George Washburn,
Fifty Years
in Constantinople
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909), pp.
246–49. Washburn relates how one
American sailor, an African American
whom the Turks mistook for a Muslim,
succeeded in saving large numbers of
Armenians.
(15)
Buckingham, Clara
Barton, pp. 260–62.
David H. Burton, Clara Barton: In the
Service of Humanity
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995),
pp. 128–30. Curti, American Philanthropy
Abroad, pp. 124, 127 (“I
shall never counsel”). Balakian,
Burning
Tigris, pp. 10, 62–65,
69-70. Kirakossian, Armenian
Massacres, pp. 42-43.
“Profiles in Caring: Clara Barton,”
http://www.nahc.org/NAHC/Val/Columns/SC1O-1.html
(“perhaps the most perfect”).
McDougall, Promised Land, pp.
104-5.
الفصل الخامس عشر: الأساطير الإمبراطورية
(1)
Clarence Clough Buel,
“Preliminary Glimpses of the Fair,”
Century
Illustrated Monthly
Magazine 45, no. 4 (Feb.
1893): 615. Davis, “Representations of the
Middle East, 1876–1904,” pp. 344–48, 370.
Erik Larson, The
Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic
and Madness at the Fair That Changed
America (New York: Vintage,
2003), pp. 247-48, 250-51,
265–67.
(2)
The Autobiography of Sol
Bloom (New York: Putnam,
1948), pp. 106 (“I came to realize”),
107-8 (I knew that”), 119 (“To have
made”). Donna Carlton, Looking for Little
Egypt (Bloomington,
Ind.: IDD Books, 1994), p. 27. A
superb description of the Middle
Eastern exhibitions at the Paris fair
can be found in Timothy Mitchell’s
Colonising
Egypt (Berkeley: Univ.
of California Press, 1988), p.
1.
(3)
“The World’s Columbian
Exposition: Idea, Experience,
Aftermath,”
http://xroads.virginia.edu/MA96/WCE/title.html
(“the strange music”). Mark Stevens,
Six Months
at the World’s Fair
(Detroit: Detroit Free Press, 1895),
pp. 101, 103 (“Cairo was strikingly”).
Larkin, Devil
in the White City, p.
236. Gustav Kobbe, “Sights at the
Fair,” Century
Illustrated Monthly
Magazine 46, no. 6
(Sept. 1893): 653 (“The Midway
Plaisance”). Carlton, Looking for Little
Egypt, pp. 27, 35, 39
(“Such a jaunt”). Norman Bolotin and
Christine Laing, The World’s Columbian
Exposition (Urbana:
Univ. of Illinois Press, 2002), p.
139. Robert Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New
World: Chicago’s Columbian
Exposition of 1893
(Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), p. 164.
David Burg, Chicago’s White City of
1893 (Lexington: Univ.
Press of Kentucky, 1976), pp. 105,
221.
(4)
The cost of riding camels
was twice that of riding
donkeys-twenty-five cents. A quarter
also gained admission to the Moorish
Palace, the Persian Tent, the Turkish
Pavilion, and the Bedouin encampment.
See Bolotin and Laing, World’s Columbian
Exposition, p. 107.
Stevens, Six
Months, p. 102 (“This
high art dancing”). Burg, Chicago’s White
City, pp. 221 (“splendid
specimens”), 222 (“It is the coarse”
and “Every motion”), 223 (“Now she
revolves”). Carlton, Looking for Little
Egypt, p. 23.
Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New
World, pp. 165, 166
(“genuine native muscle” and “a
peaceful night’s rest”), 167 (“simply
horrid”). Larkin, Devil in the White
City, pp. 311-12
(“whether the
apprehensions”).
(5)
Daniel Burnham, ed.,
Final
Official Report of the Director of
Works of the World’s Columbian
Exposition (New York:
Garland, 1989), p. 40. “None Can
Compare with It,” New York
Times, June 19, 1893, p.
5 (“The denizens”). Mrs. Mark Stevens,
A Lecture
on What You Missed in Not Visiting
the World’s Fair (Flint:
n.p., 1895), p. 6 (“New Jerusalem”).
Buel, “Preliminary Glimpses,” p. 626
(“Haroun al-Raschid”). Muccigrosso,
Celebrating
the New World, pp.
167-68 (“We were all knocked”).
Autobiography of Sol
Bloom, pp. 122-23, 135
(“The crowds poured in” and “a
masterpiece of rhythm”), 136. Burg,
Chicago’s
White City, p.
223.
(6)
Blackstone’s proposal for
an international arbitrating
organization, circulated at the 1893
fair, can be found in the William
Blackstone Papers, collection 540, box
7, folder 1. Turner, Frontier in American
History, p.
37.
الفصل السادس عشر: منطقة أُعيدَ تسميتها وتنظيمها
(1)
A. T. Mahan, Retrospect and
Prospect (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1902), pp. 233, 237, 243. A. T.
Mahan, The Problem
of Asia (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1900), pp. 80-81, 83 (“the neck of
land”). Numerous studies exist on the
Mahan’s naval theories in general and on
his concept of the Middle East in
particular. See, e.g., Roderic H. Davison,
“Where Is the Middle East?” in Richard H.
Nolte, ed., The
Modern Middle East (New
York: Atherton Press, 1963), pp. 15–17.
Marwan R. Buheiry, “Alfred T. Mahan:
Reflections on Sea Power and on the Middle
East as a Strategic Concept,” in Lawrence
I. Conrad, ed., The Formation and Perception of the
Modern Arab World
(Princeton: Darwin Press, 1990), pp.
157–62. W. D. Pulson, The Life and Work of
Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan
(New Haven: Yale Univ Press,
1939), pp. 41-42.
(2)
Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power:
The Unusual Origins of America’s World
Role (Princeton: Princeton
Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 46, 127. Walter
Zimmerman, First
Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made
Their Country a World Power
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,
2002), pp. 24-25, 30-31, 34–37. Walter
LaFeber, The New
Empire: An Interpretation of American
Expansion, 1860–1898
(Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1998), pp.
99, 105. Ernest May, Imperial Democracy: The
Emergence of America as a Great
Power (Chicago: Imprint
Publications, 1961), p.
6.
(3)
Camel cigarettes first
appeared in 1913, with a logo inspired by
“Old Joe,” a camel in the Barnum and
Bailey Circus. Other “Middle Eastern”
brands soon appeared, with names like Aga,
Kismet and Osman. See Nance, “Crossing
Over,” pp. 98–102. DeNovo, American
Interests, pp. 16–22,
39-40. Wright, United States Policy toward
Egypt, pp. 206-7. Turgay,
“Ottoman-American Trade,” p. 234 (“The
newspapers”). Field, America and the
Mediterranean World, pp.
327, 338. The
Complete Plays of Bernard
Shaw (London: Constable
Press, 1931), pp. 320 (“As the search”),
323 (“The world”).
(4)
Theodore Roosevelt’s Diaries of
Boyhood and Youth (New
York: Scribner, 1928), pp. 227 (“I
felt a great deal”),
(“what we should call”), 276 (“How I
gazed”), 278-79 (“the Arabs always
talk”), 290, 304 (“a glimpse of”),
314-319. Theodore Roosevelt, An
Autobiography (New York:
Da Capo Press, 1985), pp. 20, 398-99,
548 (“so utterly incompetent”), 550,
561 (“dreadful scourge”). Nathan
Miller, Theodore Roosevelt: A
Life (New York: Quill
Books, 1992), p. 54. Edmund Morris,
The Rise of
Theodore Roosevelt (New
York: Modern Library, 2001), pp. 37,
40-41. Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 45 (“Spain
and Turkey”). Steiner, Religious
Beliefs, pp. 152–56.
John Milton Cooper, The Warrior and the
Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore
Roosevelt (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 71-72
(“barbarous and
semi-barbarous”).
(5)
FRUS, 1901, vol. 4:
Leishman to Hay, Sept. 5, 1901, p997;
Lazzaro to Dickinson, Sept. 5, 1901,
p. 998 (“dressed like Turks”); Stone
to Peet, Sept. 20, 1901, p. 1006; Eddy
to Hay, Dec. 13 1901; Leishman to Hay,
March 1, 1902. Teresa Carpenter,
The Miss
Stone Affair: America’s First
Modern Hostage Crisis
(New York: Simon & Schuster,
2003), pp. 30-31 (“Women have no
earthly”), 32–35, 56-57, 94–96,
140–42.
(6)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls, Constantinople:
Leishman to Hay, Sept. 10, 1903.
“Unspeakable Turk to Be Called Upon to
Settle for the Murder of American
Vice-Consul,” Los Angeles Times, Aug.
28, 1903. “Turkish Minister to Confer
with Hay,” New
York Times, Aug. 30,
1903 (“We have allowed”). Still,
American
Sea Power, p. 159.
Erhan, “Ottoman Official Attitudes,”
p. 332.
(7)
USNA, RG 59, Dispatches
from U.S. Consuls. Tangier: Gummere to
Hay, May 19, 1904 (“most prominent
American”); Gummere to Hay, May 20,
1904; Gummere to Hay, June 15, 1904.
FRUS, 1904: Hay to
Gummere, June 9, 1904, pp. 498-99
(“Anything which may be regarded”).
Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York:
HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 323, 324
(“all we hold sacred”), 329
(“PRESIDENT WISHES”), 325-26, 327 (“I
had much rather”), 335 (“WE WANT
PEDICARIS”), 337-38 (“that flag”).
Baepler, White
Slaves, pp. 291–97, 301
(“one of the most”). Peter Larsen,
“Theodore Roosevelt and the Moroccan
Crisis, 1904–1906” (Ph.D. diss.,
Princeton Univ., 1984), pp. 1, 21-22
(“surrender to the demands”), 40-41,
64, 66.
(8)
FRUS, 1906:
International Diplomatic Conference at
Algeciras: White to the Secretary of
State, Jan. 30, 1906, pp. 1471-72.
The Letters
of Theodore Roosevelt,
ed. Elting Morison (Cambridge: Harvard
Univ. Press, 1954): Roosevelt to
Whitelaw Reid, June 27, 1906, pp.
318-19; Roosevelt to Joseph Cannon,
Sept. 12, 1904, pp. 923-24 (“Do they
object”). Selections from the Correspondence
of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry
Cabot Lodge, 1884–1918
(New York: Scribner, 1925): Roosevelt
to Lodge, July 11, 1905, p. 166. USNA,
RG 59, Special Missions: Root to
White, March 2, 1906 (“side with
either”). Frederick W. Marks,
Velvet on
Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore
Roosevelt (lincoln:
Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1979), p. 69.
Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt
and the Rise of America to World
Power (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins Univ. Press, 1986), pp.
356–62, 366, 370–74, 377-78, 381–88.
Raymond A. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt
and the International
Rivalries (Claremont:
Regina Books, 1970), pp. 70–79, 83–89,
104–9, 111 (“It would be
enormously”).
(9)
Franklin Matthews,
Back to
Hampton Roads (New York:
B. W. Huebsch, 1909), pp. 282-83,
287–89, 290 (“We gave Cairo”). Roman
J. Miller; Around the World with the
Battleships (Chicago: A.
C. McClurg, 1909), pp. 301–6, 308
(“About us swarmed”), 309, 315,
324-25. James A. Reckner, Teddy Roosevelt’s
Great White Fleet
(Annapolis: Naval Institute Press,
1988), pp. 146-47. Robert A. Hart,
The Great
White Fleet (Boston:
Little, Brown, 1965), pp.
272–74.
(10)
Letters of
Theodore Roosevelt:
Roosevelt to George Otto Trevelyan,
Oct. 11, 1910, pp. 349–51. Wright,
United
States Policy toward
Egypt, pp. 168-69.
Vatikiotis, History of Egypt, pp.
203-4. David H. Burton, Theodore Roosevelt:
Confident Imperialist
(Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania
Press, 1968), pp. 180–85, 191 (“I
should have things”). Sheikh Ali
Yousuff, “Egypt’s Reply to Colonel
Roosevelt,” North American Review
191 (June 1910): 732-33, 755 (“Down
with Roosevelt”), 737 (“when Egypt
is”).
(11)
Walter Scholes and Marie
Scholes, The
Foreign Policies of the Taft
Administration
(Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press,
1970), pp. 30-31. Thomas Bentley Mott,
Twenty
Years as Military
Attaché (1937, reprint,
New York: Arno Press, 1979), pp.
171–74. DeNovo, American
Interests, pp. 46–49, 52
(“an attitude”), 53 (“the veriest
folly”), 76. Grose, Israel in the
Mind, pp. 59-60. Robert
A. McDaniel, The Shuster Mission and the
Persian Constitutional
Revolution (Minneapolis:
Bibliotheca Islamica, 1974), pp. 115,
124–26, 134, 160-61, 170, 198 (“a
monumental
error”).
الباب الخامس: أمريكا والشرق الأوسط والحرب العظمى
الفصل السابع عشر: متابعون للكارثة
(1)
Philip Roth, The Plot against
America (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 2004), p. 114. David Fromkin,
A Peace to End
All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman
Empire and the Creation of the Modern
Middle East (New York:
Avon, 1989), p. 534. Kinross, Ottoman
Centuries, pp. 566–609.
Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East:
Its Discovery and
Development (London: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1954), p. 25. Helen Davenport
Gibbons, The Red
Rugs of Tarsus: A Woman’s Record of
the Armenian Massacre of
1909 (New York: Century,
1917), pp. 170 (“The only difference”),
179.
(2)
Grabill, Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 38. DeNovo,
American
Interests, pp. 38, 96.
FRUS, 1914, Supplement:
Bryan to Morgenthau, Oct. 5, 1914, p. 9
(“I am much
gratified”).
(3)
FRUS, 1914, Supplement:
Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 19, 1914, p.
758; Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 25, 1914,
p. 75; Bryan to Morgenthau, Aug. 26, 1914,
p. 77 (“in the
interest”).
(4)
FRUS, 1914, Supplement:
Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 15, 1914, p. 66
(“grave immediate necessity”); Morgenthau
to Bryan, Aug. 19, 1914, p. 758 (“reign of
military terrorism”); Morgenthau to Bryan,
Nov. 7, 1914, p. 139 (“never doubted”);
Morgenthau to Bryan, Nov. 8, 1914, p. 781
(“For each Mussulman”); Lansing to
Morgenthau, Nov. 18, 1914, p. 771 (“Should
organized massacres”); Lansing to
Morgenthau, Nov. 20, 1914, p. 771 (“any
loss of life”); Bryan to Morgenthau, Dec.
20, 1914, pp. 777-78 (“it would be
unsafe”); Morgenthan to bryan, Dec. 22,
1914, p. 778; 1914–20, Lansing Papers,
vol. 1: Rusem to Bryan, Sept. 12, 1914,
pp. 70-71 (“who gave the world”); Wilson
to Lansing, Sept. 17, 1914, pp. 72-73. See
also Robert Trask, The United States Response to Turkish
Nationalism and Reform,
1914–1939 (Minneapolis:
Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1971), p. 13.
Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The Struggle for
Neutrality (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1960), pp. 68-69.
Robert L. Daniel, “The Armenian Question
and American-Turkish Relations,
1914–1927,” Mississippi Valley Historical
Review 46 (Sept. 1959):
256.
(5)
“Missionaries Tell of
Terrible Conditions—Raids by Turks,”
New York
Times, Dec. 5, 1914;
“20,000 Christians in Peril,” Dec. 15,
1914; “Fear of General Massacre in
Constantinople” (“There was no room”).
Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp.
177–80.
(6)
Leslie A. Davis,
The
Slaughterhouse Province: An
American Diplomat’s Report on the
Armenian Genocide,
1915–1917 (New Rochelle:
Aristide D. Caratzas, 1989), pp 46–54,
67–69, 79 (“The Mohammedans”).
Statement
by the Rev. William A. Shedd, of
the American (Presbyterian) Mission
Station at Urmia, “Beth
Aram—The Aramean homepage in Germany,”
http://www.beth-aram.de/dokumente3.html.
“Agonies of Armenians Described by DL
Richard Hill in Letter from Caucuses,”
New York Times, Feb. 7, 1916. Henry H.
Riggs, Days of
Tragedy in Armenia (Ann
Arbor: Gomidas Institute, 1917), p.
48. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp.
193-94 (“old men and old”), 346 (“The
Government”), 180, 196,
200-1.
(7)
Jay Winter, ed.,
America and
the Armenian Genocide of
1915 (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003), p. 192.
Clarence Ussher and Grace Knapp,
An American
Physician in Turkey
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917), pp.
236–44, 277. John D. Barrows,
In the Land
of Ararat (New York:
Revell, 1916), pp. 128–34. FRUS,
1915, Supplement: Bryan to Gerard.
March 12, 1915, p. 964
(“non-combatants”). “Turks Lock 1,000
in Wooden Building and Then Apply the
Torch,” New
York Times, Sept. 3,
1915; “Spare Armenians Pope Asks
Sultan,” Oct. 13, 1915; “State
Department Shows Quarter of a Million
Women Violated,” Oct. 22, 1915.
Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and
the Age of Genocide (New
York: Basic, 2002), pp.
4–6.
(8)
Barbara Tuchman, “The
Assimilationist Dilemma: Ambassador
Morgenrhau’s Story,” Commentary
63, no. 5 (May 1977): 60. Henry
Morgenthau III, Mostly Morgenthau: A
Family History (New
York: Ticknor & Fields, 1991),
pp. 102-3, 127. The Papers of Woodrow
Wilson, ed. Arthur Link
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press,
1966–94), vol. 35: From the Diary of
Colonel House, May 2, 1913, pp.
384-85; Henry Morgenthau to Woodrow
Wilson, June 12, 1913 (“Would
prominent Methodists”), p. 513.
Central Zionist Archives (henceforth,
CZA), A 243/150: Morgenthau to Wise,
June 10, 1913; Wise to Morgenthau,
Aug. 7, 1913.
(9)
Balakian, Burning
Tigris, pp. 222-23
(“dazzling” and “intrigue,
intimidation”). CZA, A 243/150:
Morgenthau to Wise, Nov. 28, 1913
(“This is undoubtedly”). Henry
Morgenthau Papers, reel 22; undated
speech (“few rug merchants”). Henry
Morgenthau, All in a Life-Time
(Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Page,
1922), pp. 175-76 (“I had hitherto”),
196, 203 (“the American spirit”), 204
(“gospel of Americanism”), 209 (“Here
was I”). Henry Morgenthau, The Murder of a
Nation (New York:
Armenian General Benevolent Union of
America, 1974), p.
18.
(10)
Lansing replaced Bryan,
an adamant pacifist, who resigned in
protest of Wilson’s policies, which,
he felt, were drawing America into the
war. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp.
227, 266–70. Merrill D. Peterson,
“Starving
Armenians”: America and the
Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and
After (Charlottesville:
Univ. of Virginia Press, 2004), p. 37
(“gigantic plundering”). “Armenians’
Own Fault, Benstrof Now Says,”
New York
Times, Sept. 29, 1915.
Power, Problem
from Hell, p. 6. Israel
Charny, ed., Encyclopedia of
Genocide (Santa Barbara:
ABC-CLIO, 1999), p. 96. Lewis
Einstein, Inside Constantinople
(London; John Murray, 1917), p. 231.
FRUS, 1915, Supplement:
Morgenthau to the Secretary of State,
July 10, 1915, p. 983 (“race
extermination”); 1914–20, Lansing
Papers, vol. 1: Lansing to Wilson,
Nov. 15, 1916, p.
41.
(11)
Papers of
Woodrow Wilson, vol. 35,
p. 349 (‘You may be sure”). FRUS,
1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1:
Lansing to Wilson, Nov. 21, 1916, p.
42 (“well-known disloyalty”). Winter,
America and
the Armenian Genocide,
p. 104. “Government Sends Plea for
Armenia,” New
York Tims, Oct. 4, 1915
(“aroused strong sentiment”). Henry
Morgenthau Papers, reel 7: Morgenthau
to the Secretary of State, July 16,
1915 (“Nothing short of”). Henry
Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s
Story (Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1918), pp. 333-34
(“not … as a Jew”). Morgenthau,
Murder of a
Nation, pp. 64 (“Our
people will”), 68 (“They are all
dead”).
(12)
Henry Morgenthau Papers,
reel 7: Morgenthau to Secretary of
State, Aug. 11, 1915 (“It is
difficult”). FRUS, 1915, Supplement,
Morgenthau to Secretary of State,
Sept. 3, 1915, p. 988. USNA, RG 59,
Morgenthau to the Secretary of State,
Nov. 25, 1915; Morgenthau to the
American Consuls at Beiruth and
Aleppo, Nov. 29, 1915. James Barton,
Story of
Neat East Relief
(1915–1930) (New York:
Macmillan, 1930), p. 4. Ralph Elliot
Cook, “The United States and the
Armenian Question, 1894–1924” (Ph.D.
diss., Tufts Univ., 1957), pp. 131-32.
Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp.
279-80, 282. Power, Problem from
Hell, pp. 9 , 11-12.
CZA, CM 241/2—roll 44: Clipping from
the St. Louis Dispatch, Sept. 15, 1915
(“The United States might be”). Some
Americans also opposed Morgenthau’s
plan for resettling Armenians in the
United States. “Nothing is more stupid
… than advocating that the solution of
the Armenian question … is in
emigration en
masse to America,” wrote
the New York
Herald correspondent
Herbert Gibbons. “Their wholesale
emigration … would mark the
disappearance of the Armenians as a
race and a nation.” See Herbert A,
Gibbons, The
Blackest Page of Modern
History (New York:
Putnam, 1916), p.
50.
(13)
Richard Kloian, The Armenian
Genocide: News Accounts from the
American Press
(Berkeley: Auto Press, 1985), p. 219
(“One group”). Balakian, Burning
Tigris, pp. 242-43
(“arms or legs” and “hundreds of
bodies”), 246-47. James Barton, ed,,
“Turkish
Atrocities”: Statements of American
Missionaries on the Destruction of
Christian Communities in Ottoman
Turkey, 1915–1917 (Ann
Arbor: Gomidas Institute, 1998), p. 9
(“Women [who] escaped”.)
(14)
George Horton, The Blight of
Asia (1926; reprint,
Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953),
pp. 54–57. Balakian, Burning
Tigris, pp. 254-55.
DeNovo, American Interests, p.
39. Morgenthau, Ambassador
Morgenthau’s Story, pp.
307, 321-22 (“The whole history”),
350. Morgenthau, Murder of a
Nation, p. 114 (“I had
reached”). See also Marsovan 1915: The
Diaries of Bertha B.
Morley (Ann Arbor:
Gomidas Institute, 2000), p.
15.
(15)
FRUS, 1916, Supplement:
Philip to Lansing, May 21, 1916, p.
851 (“Turkish authorities appear”);
Philip to Lansing, July 15, 1916, pp.
932-33 (“fri spite of”); Philip to
Lansing, July 26, 1916, p. 934; Philip
to Lansing, July 26, 1916, p. 935;
1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 2:
Lansing to Wilson, May 17, 1917, pp.
17–19. Dennis R. Papazian, “Misplaced
Credulity: Contemporary Turkish
Attempts to Refute the Armenian
Genocide,”
http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/papazian/misplace.html
(“unchecked policy of extermination”).
Kaplan, Arabists, p. 65 (“The
air was filled”). See also Grace D.
Guthrie, Legacy to Lebanon (Richmond,
Va.: Self-published, 1984), p. 17.
Margaret McGilvary, The Dawn of a New Era
in Syria (New York:
Revel), 1920, pp. 94 (“The whole
country”), 110 (“In Syria we
were”).
الفصل الثامن عشر: تحرُّك أم جمود؟
(1)
Papers of Woodrow Wilson,
vol. 35: House to Wilson, Nov. 11, 1915,
p. 191 (“Anything coming”); House to
Wilson, Feb. 3, 1916, p. 124 (“The Central
Empire runs”); Woodrow Wilson’s State of
the Union Address, Dec. 4, 1917, p. 200
(“do not yet stand”). FRUS, 1916,
Supplement: Philip to Lansing, March 28,
1916, p. 849; 1914–20, Lansing Papers,
vol. 1: Elkus to Lansing, Sept. 26, 1916,
p. 782; Elkus to Lansing, March 2, 1917,
pp. 787-88 (“What can we expect”); Elkus
to Lansing, Feb. 11, 1917, p. 134 (“Our
relations with Turkey”); Supplement 2:
Secretary of State to Elkus, April 6,
1917, p. 11. See also Isaiah Friedman,
The Question
of Palestine: British-Jewish-Arab
Relations: 1914–1918 (New
Brunswick: Transaction, 1992), p.
211.
(2)
Wilson’s request for a
congressional declaration of war appears
on
http://www.classbrain.com/artteenst/publish/article_86.shtml.
Cornelius Engert Papers, box 1, folder
11.5: Engert to American Minister at The
Hague, Nov. 11, 1917. Papers of Woodrow
Wilson, vol. 35: Chambers
to Wilson, Dec. 10, 1915, p. 337; vol. 45:
Abram Elkus to Wilson, Nov. 14, 1917
(“Turkey is the weakest”). John H. Finley,
A Pilgrim in
Palestine (New York:
Scribne; 1919), p. 55. “Senators Want War
on Austria,” New
York Times, Nov. 27, 1917
(“Turkey’s course”); Dec. 7, 1917 (“I
should be sorry”). Selections from the Correspondence of
Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot
Lodge: Lodge to Roosevelt,
Oct. 2, 1918. Letters of Theodore
Roosevelt: Roosevelt to
Lodge, Oct. 23, 1918 (“We ought to
declare”); Roosevelt to Paul Shimmon, July
10, 1918 (“surpassed the
iniquity”).
(3)
Papers of Woodrow Wilson,
vol. 45: Dodge to Wilson, Dec. 2, 1917,
pp. 185-86; Wilson to Dodge, Dec. 5, 1917
(“every word”); vol. 47: Lansing to
Wilson, May 8, 1918, pp. 569-70; vol. 48:
From the Diary of Colonel House, May 19,
1918, p. 70; Wilson to Lansing, May 24,
1918, p. 136; vol. 49: Sir William Wiseman
to Sir Eric Drummond, Aug. 27, 1918, p.
365. DeNovo, American Interests, p. 106
(“I have thought”). Letters of Theodore
Roosevelt, vol. 8:
Roosevelt to Cleveland, May 11, 1918, pp.
1316–18 (“We are guilty”); Theodore
Roosevelt to Andrew Fleming West, Dec. 28,
1918, p. 1418 (“It is rather bitter”).
Joseph Grabill, “Cleveland H. Dodge,
Woodrow Wilson and the Near East,”
Journal of
Presbyterian History 48
(Winter 1970): 249–54. Fromkin, Peace to End All
Peace, p. 260 (“following
its inclination”). See also David E.
Cronon, ed., The
Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels,
1913–1921 (Lincoln: Univ.
of Nebraska Press, 1963), p.
246.
(4)
FRUS, 1914–20, Lansing
Papers, vol. 2: Lansing to Wilson, May
17,1917, pp. 17–19; 1917, Supplement
2: Morgenthau and Frankfurter to
Secretary of State, July 8, 1917, pp.
120–22. Papers
of Woodrow Wilson,vol.
43: Memorandum from an interview with
Wilson written by Sir William Wiseman,
July 13, 1917, p. 172; vol. 45:
Morgenthau to Wilson, Nov. 26, 1917,
p. 123 (“was the cancer”); Wilson to
Lansing, Nov. 28, 1917, p. 147; vol.
49: Dodge to Wilson, Sept. 28, 1918,
pp. 151-52 (“in the seventh heaven”).
Jehuda Reinharz, Chaim Weizman: The
Making of a Statesman
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993),
pp. 153-54, 155 (“there was one
chance”), 163 (“on no account”),
164–68. Richard Lebow, “The Morgenthau
Peace Mission of 1917,” Jewish Social
Studies 32, no. 4 (Oct.
1970): 271 (“If it succeeds”), 272–80,
281 (“hot air impressions”), 284
(“wild goose chase”). William Yale,
“Ambassador Henry Morgenthau’s Special
Mission of 1917,” World
Politics 1, no. 3 (April
1949): 311–15, 320 (“Morgenthau’s
trip”). Manuel, Realities,
155–58. Chaim Weizmann, Trial and Error: The
Autobiography of Chaim
Weizmann (Philadelphia:
Jewish Publication Society of America,
1949), pp. 196 (“Talk to Morgenthau”),
197-98.
الفصل التاسع عشر: ميلاد حركة أمريكية
(1)
Raider, Emergence of American
Zionism, p. 12. Feinstein,
American
Zionism, pp. 99 (“a fatal
blow”), 125. Rafael Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs:
An American Jewish Dilemma,
1898–1948 (Westport, Coon.:
Praeger, 1997), p. 12 (“of merely being”).
Gideon Shimoni, The Zionist Ideology
(Hanover: Univ. Press of New England,
Brandeis Univ. Press, 1995), p. 137
(“Their entire desire”). Grose, Israel in the
Mind, p. 72 (“the most
formidable”). Arthur Hertzberg, ed.,
The Zionist
Idea: An Historical Analysis and
Reader (New York: Atheneum,
1972), p. 500 (“We believe that”). Melvin
I. Urofsky, American Zionism from Herzl to the
Holocaust (Garden City,
N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1975), p. 98. Oscar
Straus Papers, box 4: Straus to Wolf,
April 24, 1906.
(2)
Samuel Halperin, The Political World of
American Zionism (Detroit:
Wayne State Univ. Press, 1961), pp. 11-12
(“Will the Jews”). Hertzberg, Zionist Idea,
p. 499 (“Is the German-American”). H. N.
Hirsch, The Enigma
of Felix Frankfurter (New
York: Basic Books, 1981), p. 44. Michael
E. Parrish, Felix
Frankfurter and His Times: The Reform
Years (New York: Free
Press, 1982), pp. 129-30. Ben Halpern,
“The Americanization of Zionism,”
American
Jewish History 69, no. 1
(1979): 15–33. Melvin I. Urofsky,
A Voice That
Spoke for Justice: The Life and Times
of Stephen S. Wise (Albany:
State Univ. of New York Press,
1982).
(3)
Raider, Emergence of American
Zionism, pp. 21, 25, 27.
Grose, Israel in
the Mind, pp. 48 (“these
so-called dreamers”), 52 (“deep moral
feeling”). CZA, A 243/13, Stephen S. Wise
Papers: Wise to Frankfurter, Oct. 10, 1936
(“Sanity, soundness”). Ezekiel Rabinowitz,
Justice Louis
D. Brandeis: The Zionist Chapter of
His Life (New York:
Philosophical Library, 1968), pp. 14, 31.
Evyatar Freisel, “Brandeis’ Role in
American Zionism Reconsidered,” in Jeffrey
Gurock, ed., American Jewish History: The Colonial
and Early National Periods,
1654–1840 (New York:
Routledge, 1998), pp. 42-43, 105. Allon
Gal, “In Search of a New Zion: New Light
on Brandeis’ Road to Zionism,” in Gurrock,
American
Jewish History, pp. 79, 88,
90-91 (“the descendants”). Ben Halpern,
A Clash of
Heroes: Brandeis, Weizmann and
American Zionism (New York:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 94-95,
100–5. Louis D. Brandeis, The Jewish Problem: How
to Solve It (New York:
Zionist Organization of America, 1919),
pp. 19-20 (“There is no
inconsistency”).
(4)
USNA, Ducker to the
Secretary of the Navy—Report on the
Conditions in Palestine with Reference
to Zionism, Feb. 10, 1915. Lansing to
Brandeis, Feb. 16, 1915 (“general
massacre”); Alexandria Palestine
Committee to the Secretary of State,
Jan. 25, 1915 (“In name of”);
FRUS, 1914, Supplement:
Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 13, 1914, p.
757; 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1:
Elkus to Lansing, Nov. 17, 1916, p.
784. Manuel, Realities, pp. 128–31,
136–40. Ruth L. Deech, “Jacob de Haas:
A Biography,” in Raphael Patai, ed.,
Herzl Year
Book 7 (New York: Henl
Press, 1971), pp. 340-41 (“If ever I
have”).
(5)
Morgenthau, All in a
Life-Time, p. 175
(“Anything you can do”). Manuel,
Realities, pp. 120–25,
126 (“unqualified loyalty”), 141–46.
FRUS, 1916, Supplement:
Morgenthau to Lansing, Dec. 1915, p.
830; Lansing to Glazebrook, Jan. 14,
1916, p. 925; Lansing to Philip, Sept.
13, 1916, p. 937. USNA, Ducker to the
Secretary of the Navy—Report on the
Conditions in Palestine with Reference
to Zionism, Feb. 10, 1915 (“would long
remain” and “undoubtedly one”). CZA, A
243/159, Correspondence on Matters of
the Yishuv: Perlstein to Wise, Jan.
16, 1915; A 264/25, Papers of Felix
Frankfurter: Primrose to Gaster, March
18, 1915. Alexander Aaronsohn,
With the
Turks Palestine (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1916), p. 85.
Leonard Stein, The Balfour Declaration
(London: Vallentine, Mitchell, 1961),
p. 191 (“America was”). Scuttled by a
tsunami in Aug. 1916, with the loss of
thirty-eight hands, the Tennessee
was mourned by the Jews of Palestine
as “an eternal blessing.” See Davis,
With Eyes
toward Zion, vol. 2, pp.
238-39.
(6)
Grose, Israel in the
Mind, p. 68 (“The Jews
from every”). Manuel, Realities,
p. 83. Letters
of Theodore Roosevelt:
Roosevelt to Julian H. Miller; Sept.
16, 1918, p. 1372 (“It seems to me”);
Roosevelt to Lioubomir Michailovitch,
July 11, 1918, p. 1350 (“there can
be”). The
Intimate Papers of Colonel
House, ed. Charles
Seymour (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1928), vol. 1, pp. 43-44 (“It is all
bad”). Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson and
World Settlement (Garden
City. N.Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1923), p.
74 (“fine example”). Fromkin,
Peace to
End All Peace, pp. 257,
295 (“the English naturally want”).
Stein, Balfour
Declaration, p. 156.
Elizabeth Monroe, Britain’s Moment in
the Middle East,
1914–1956 (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1963), p.
40 (“man to man”). Yaakov Ariel,
On Behalf
of Israel: American Fundamentalist
Attitudes toward Jews, Judaism and
Zionism, 1865–1945
(Brooklyn: Carlson, 1991), p. 45 (“the
Zionist
movement”).
(7)
Grose, Israel in the
Mind, pp. 63–66, 67 (“To
think that”). Cabinet Diaries of Josephus
Daniels, p. 267. Stein,
Balfour
Declaration, pp. 427-28,
505, 530. The
Letters of Louis D.
Brandeis, ed. Melvin I.
Urofsky and David M. Levy (Albany:
State Univ. of New York, 1973):
Brandeis to de Hass, April 24, 1917,
p. 283 (“I have heard much”), de Hass
Memorandum, May 4, 1917, p. 286 (“a
publicly assured”); Brandeis to de
Hass, May 8, 1917, p. 288 (“I am a
Zionist”); Brandeis to Weizmann, Sept.
24, 1917, p. 310 (“entire sympathy”).
Richard Lebow, “Woodrow Wilson and the
Balfour Declaration,” Journal of Modern
History 40, no. 4 (Dec.
1968): 501–13. Weizmann, Trial and
Error, pp. 193-94, 208
(“one of the most important”). Manuel,
Realities, p. 168 (“the
many dangers”). Merkley, Politics of Christian
Zionism, p. 91 (“The
vast mass”).
(8)
Ben Halpern and Jehuda
Reinharz, Zionism and the Creation of a New
Society (New York:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 175–77,
180–82. Robert Silverberg, If I Forget Thee, O
Jerusalem: American Jews and the
State of Israel (New
York: Morrow, 1970), pp. 104, 105-6
(“The Americans brought”), 176. Martin
Watts, The
Jewish Legion and the First World
War (London: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2004), pp. 147-48. Elias
Gilner, War
and Hope: A History of the Jewish
Legion (New York: Herzl
Press, 1969), pp. 165–67, 170-71,
177.
(9)
Lansing’s remark about
Jewish guilt for the death of Christ
was later leaked to the press, but the
secretary denied having made it.
FRUS, 1914–20, Lansing
Papers, vol. 2: Lansing to Wilson,
Dec. 13, 1917, p. 71 (“many Christian
Sects”); Lansing Note, Dec. 14, 1917,
p. 71 (“very unwillingly”). Selig
Adler, “The Palestine Question in the
Wilson Era,” Jewish Social Studies
10, no. 4 (Oct. 1948): 313 (“polluting
and intolerable”). Medoff, Zionism and the
Arabs, pp. 21–25. Grose,
Israel in
the Mind, pp. 70, 83
(“sentimental, religious”). William
Yale Oral History, Columbia Univ., pp.
10 (“playboy”), 14 (“brass knucks”).
Manuel, Realities, pp. 171, 172
(“400 million Christians”), 176
(“satisfaction” and “in the
progress”), 184 (“younger and more
hot-headed”), 185 (“young, hot-headed
Jews”), 186 (“Religious fanaticism”
and “If a Jewish State”), 189
(“disagreeable … type”), 190. Monroe,
Britain’s
Moment in the Middle
East, pp.
44-45.
(10)
Medoff, Zionism and the
Arabs, pp. 21–25. Grose,
Israel in
the Mind, p. 81 (“The
Arabs in
Palestine”).
الفصل العشرون: تنبَّهوا واستفيقوا أيها العرب
(1)
John M. Munro, A Mutual Concern: The
Story of the American University of
Beirut (Delmar, N.Y.:
Caravan Books, 1977), p. 65 (“I know why
the Turks”). The study of the origins of
Arab nationalism has generated a great
many books and articles. See, e.g., Ernest
C. Dawn, “The Origins of Arab
Nationalism,” in Rashid Khalidi, ed.,
The Origins of
Arab Nationalism (New York:
Columbia Univ. Press, 1991), p. 3. Ernest
C. Dawn, From
Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the
Origins of Arab Nationalism
(Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1973),
pp. 132, 140. Adeed Dawisha, Arab Nationalism in the
Twentieth Century: From Triumph to
Despair (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 2003), Pp. 25–27,
32–34. Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism:
Between Islam and the
Nation-State (New York: St.
Martin’s, 1997), pp. 102–4. Eliezer
Tauber, The
Emergence of the Arab
Movements (London: Frank
Cass, 1993), pp. 15–18. Zeine N. Zeine,
The Emergence
of Arab Nationalism, 3d ed.
(Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan Books, 1973), pp.
45, 79, 106. See also George Antakly,
“American Protestant Educational Missions:
Their Influence on Syria and Arab
Nationalism, 1820–1923” (Ph.D. diss.,
American Univ., 1976), pp. 111-12, 115,
120.
(2)
Neville Mandel, The Arabs and Zionism
before World War I
(Berkeley: Univ. of California Press,
1976), pp. 42–55, 85-86, 211-12 (“The
Jews’ … right”). Mary C. Wilson, “The
Hashemites, the Arab Revolt and Arab
Nationalism,” in Khalidi, Origins of Arab
Nationalism, pp. 205, 219.
Dawisha, Arab
Nationalism, p. 34.
Muhammad Y. Muslih, The Origins of
Palestinian Nationalism
(New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1988),
pp. 54–60, 67, 79,
87.
(3)
Alixa Naff, The Arab
Americans (Philadelphia:
Chelsea House, 1999), pp. 14, 33.
Alixa Naff, “Arabs in America: A
Historical Overview,” in Sameer
Abraham, ed., Arabs in the New World: Studies in
Arab-American
Communities (Detroit:
Wayne State Univ., 1983), pp. 9-10,
13–19. Philip Keyal and Joseph Keyal,
The
Syrian-Lebanese in
America (Boston: Twayne,
1975), pp. 34, 41, 63, 66, 82. Salon
Rizk, Syrian
Yankee (Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1943), p. 71
(“I could see America”). Because of a
misspelling of his name in a Boston
grammar school, Khalil Gibran’s name
is sometimes rendered Kahlil Gibran.
See “Khalil the Heretic” in Gregory
Orfalea, ed., Grape Leaves: A Century of Arab
American Poetry (Salt
Lake City: Univ. of Utah Press, 1988),
pp. 24-25. Gibran Khalil Gibran,
The
Prophet (New York:
Knopf, 1952), pp. 48-49. For further
reference, see the Gibran Khaki Gibran
website,
http://leb.net/gibran/.
(4)
The Ameen Rihani Papers;
From an unpublished manuscript, pp. 76
(“other educational institutions”),
111 (“proof of the aptitude”), 115
(“American spirit”), Bliss to Rihani,
March 12, 1913 (“It was unfortunate”).
Nada Najjar, “The Space In-between:
The Ambivalence of Early Arab-American
Writers” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of
Toledo, 1999), pp. 77, 96, 123, 126
(“Carry to the East”). Theodore Roosevelt
Papers: Rihani to
Roosevelt, April 20, 1917. Ameen
Rihani, The
Path of Vision (Beirut:
Rihani House, 1970), pp. 97 (“in a
land where”), 124 (“The voice of
America”). Ameen Rihani, “Palestine
and the Proposed Arab Federation,”
Annals of
the American Academy of Political
and Social Science 164
(Nov. 1932): 66 (“The Land of
Promise”). Ameen Rihani, The Fate of
Palestine (Beirut:
Rihani House, 1967), pp. 25, 37, 80,
85 (“without prejudicing”). See also
Suheil B. Bushrui, The Thoughts and
Works of Ameen Rihani,
http://www.alhewar.com/Bushrui_Rihani.html.
(5)
Laurence Evans, United States Policy
and the Partition of Turkey,
1914–1924 (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), pp. 122
(“I have a kindly”). Stuart Knee, “The
King-Crane Commission of 1919: The
Articulation of Political
Anti-Zionism,” in Gurrock, American Jewish
History, pp. 182–88, 188
(“Unitarians of the desert”). Grabill,
“Cleveland H. Dodge,” p. 254. Kaplan,
Arabists, p. 70 (“the
menace”). Frank W. Brecher, Reluctant Ally:
United States Foreign Policy toward
the Jews from Wilson to
Roosevelt (New York:
Greenwood, 1991), p. 19. David
Philip-son, My
Life as an American Jew
(Cincinnati: John G. Kidd, 1941), pp.
173-74.
الفصل الحادي والعشرون: أول عملية سلام في الشرق الأوسط
(1)
Studies on the origins of
Wilsonian diplomacy abound. See, e.g.,
Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and
the Quest for a New World
Order (Princeton: Princeton
Univ. Press, 1992), pp. 3 (“A boy never
gets”), 14, 33, 77. August Heckscher,
Woodrow
Wilson (New York: Scribner,
1991), pp. 294, 434. Louis Auchincloss,
Woodrow
Wilson (New York: Penguin,
2000), pp. 74, 92. Arthur Walworth,
Woodrow
Wilson (New York: Norton,
1978), pp. 343, 344 (“go to the ends”),
345 (“do the thinking”). Ray Stannard
Baker, Woodrow
Wilson: Life and Letters,
1856–1890 (Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday,
1927), pp. 49, 211, 312. Lloyd E.
Ambrosius, Woodrow
Wilson and the American Diplomatic
Tradition (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 1-2, 9.
Cooper Warrior and
the Priest, pp. 15, 273,
323. David M. Kennedy, “What ‘W’ Owes to
‘WW,’” Atlantic
Monthly, March 2005, p.
36.
(2)
FRUS
, 1919,
Paris Peace Conference Papers, vol. 5:
Proceedings, April 21, 1919, p. 107; May
13, 1919, p. 584 (“docile people”); vol.
6: June 25, 1919, p. 676 (“cleared out”).
Intimate
Papers of Colonel House,
vol. 1: Diary entry for Dec. 18, 1912, p.
96 (“There ain’t going”). Harley Notter,
The Origins of
the Foreign Policy of Woodrow
Wilson (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins Press, 1937), p. 46 (“abnormal”).
Walworth, Woodrow
Wilson, p. 497 (“America
believes in
helping”).
(3)
FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 1: Excerpt from “The
Inquiry,” Dec. 22, 1917, p. 52; Lippmann
to the Secretary of War, May 16, 1918, pp.
97-98. Manuel, Realities, pp. 212,
213-14. William L. Westermann Paris Peace
Conference Diaries, entry for Dec. 29,
1918, p. 14 (“thrown in the waste”).
Lawrence E. Gelfand, The Inquiry: American
Preparations for Peace,
1917–1919 (New Haven: Yale
Univ. Press, 1963), pp. 227, 231-32, 244,
248-49, 255 (“fanaticism and bitter”), 256
(“It was the cradle”). Taner Akçam,
A Shameful
Act: The Armenian Genocide and the
Question of Turkish
Responsibility (New York:
Metropolitan Books, 2006), pp.
227–30.
(4)
Manuel, Realities, p.
217 (“Will not the Mohammedans”). George
Noble, “The Voice of Egypt,” Nation 110,
no. 2844 (Jan. 3, 1920): 862 (“No
people”).
(5)
FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 1: Jusserand to
Lansing, Nov. 29, 1918, p. 367.
Papers of
Woodrow Wilson, vol. 47:
Memorandum by William Westermann,
April 17, 1919, p. 443 (“the great
loot”). Link, Wilson, p. 414 (“call
through a crack”). Margaret MacMillan,
Paris 1919:
Six Months That Changed the
World (New York: Random
House, 2002), pp. 30–32, 386 (“the
complete and definite”). Edward House,
ed., What
Really Happened at Paris
(New York: Scribner, 1921), pp. 178-79
(“Not having declared”). Fromkin,
Peace to
End All Peace, p. 373
(“The other
governments”).
(6)
Grose, Israel in the
Mind, p. 84 (“In spite
of”). MacMillan, Paris
1919, p. 386 (“knowing in
the bottom” and “The obstacle is”).
Frederick Palmer, Bliss,
Peacemaker (New York:
Dodd, Mead, 1934), p. 418 (“Wherever a
mandate”). FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 3: Proceedings, Jan.
30, 1919, p. 807 (“I can think of”).
Smuts envisaged three types of
mandates—A, B and C, where A mandates
were intended for those territories
most ready for independence. All of
the Middle East mandates were type A.
See F.S. Crafford, Jan Smuts: A
Biography (Garden City.
N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1943), p. 148.
H. C. Armstrong, Grey Steel (London:
Arthur Barker, 1937), p.
316.
(7)
Felix Frankfurter Reminisces:
Recorded in Talks with Harlan B.
Phillips (New York:
Reynal, 1960), p. 156 (“Here was
little me”). Joseph P. Lash, From the Diaries of
Felix Frankfurter (New
York: Norton, 1975), p. 26 (“cousins
in race”). FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 3: Proceedings, Feb.
6, 1919, p. 891; Bliss Address to the
Council of Ten on Feb. 13, 1919, pp.
1016-17; vol. 4: Proceedings, Feb. 27,
1919, p. 169 (“They are intelligent”).
Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, p. 500
(“startling resemblance”). John Allen,
“Inventing the Middle East,” On
Wisconsin (Winter 2004):
36–39. Paul C. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres:
The Partition of the Ottoman Empire
at the Peace Conference of
1919-1920 (Columbus:
Ohio State Univ. Press, 1974), p. 67.
Robert Lansing, The Big Four and
Others of the Peace
Conference (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1921), pp. 163-64
(“ancient seer”), 169 (“His voice
seemed”). Manuel, Realities,
pp. 221-22, 229 (“prominent American
Jews”), 234-35, 238 (“The opposition
of the Moslems”), 257 (“Jerusalem will
be”).
(8)
Helmreich, From Paris to
Sèvres, pp. 22 (“So long
as”), 67. Edith Wharton, In Morocco
(New York: Scribner, 1920), pp. 79
(“Nothing endures in Islam”), 266
(“from Persia to Morocco”). Evans,
United
States Policy, p. 29.
James ShotwelL, At the Paris Peace
Conference (New York:
Macmillan, 1937), pp. 130-31, 176–78.
Harry N. Howard, The King-Crane
Commission (Beirut:
Khayats, 1963), pp. 50-51 (“widespread
trouble”). MacMillan, Paris
1919, pp. 152-53, 154 (“I
cannot imagine”). Walworth, Woodrow
Wilson, p. 492 (“America
is the only”).
(9)
FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 5: Proceedings, March
20, 1919, pp. 10 (“scrap”), 12; vol.
11: Minutes of Meeting, March 27,
1919, p. 133 (“knew nothing about”).
Brecher, Reluctant Ally, pp.
19-20. Manuel, Realities, p. 245 (“a
very experienced”). Papers of Woodrow
Wilson: Feisal to
Wilson, vol. 47: April 20, 1919, p.
525 (“I am confident”); vol. 48:
Wilson Remark in Paris, May 3, 1919,
p. 401 (“Our [Allied] governments”).
Felix
Frankfurter Reminisces,
p. 151 (“A crazy idea”). Howard,
King-Crane
Commission, pp. 35, 37
(“is about to cheat”), 38-39, 44-45
(“too honest”). William L. Westermann
Paris Peace Conference Diaries, entry
for Jan. 12, 1919, pp. 19 (“the root
of all good”),
24.
(10)
Thomas Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and
the Great Betrayal (New
York: Macmillan, 1947), pp. 264–66.
Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile:
The Ethnic
Cleansing of Ottoman
Muslims, 1821–1922
(Princeton: Darwin Press, 1995), p.
263 (“Old men, unarmed”). MacMillan,
Paris
1919, pp. 349, 353-54.
Fromkin, Peace
to End All Peace, pp.
393–95. Howard M. Sachar, The Emergence of the
Middle East, 1914–1924
(New York: Knopf, 1969), p. 349.
FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 5: Proceedings, May
14, 1919, p. 618; May 19, 1919, p.
708; May 22, 1919, p. 812. Grabill,
Protestant
Diplomacy, p. 260 (“with
all my heart”). William L. Westermann
Peace Conference Diaries, entry for
May 22, 1919, p. 81. Documents on British
Foreign Policy,
1919–1939, ed, Rohan Butler and J. P.
T. Bury (London: Her Majesty’s
Stationery Office, 1963), vol. 13:
Geddes to Curzon, May 11, 1919, pp.
70-71; Geddes to Curzon, May 19, 1919,
p. 76. Intimate Papers of Colonel
House, vol. 3: entry for
May 20, 1919, p. 468 (“something of a
scandal”).
(11)
Donald M. Love, Henry Churchill King
of Oberlin (New Haven:
Yale Univ. Press, 1956), pp. 215-16.
Howard, King-Crane Commission,
pp. 56, 221 (“Every part of the
Turkish”). Manuel, Realities,
pp. 249–51 (“Whereas injustice”).
FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 12; Crane and King to
the Commission to Negotiate Peace,
July 10, 1919, pp. 749-50 (“A real
great lover”); King-Crane Commission,
pp. 792, 794 (“be seriously
considered” and “It is simply
impossible”), 797 (“On account of her”
and “no other Power”), 799 (“The
people of the area”), 801, 833
(“Constantinopolitan State”). William
Yale Oral History, pp. 64, 70. For an
overview of the commission, see James
Gelvin, “The Ironic Legacy of the
King-Crane Commission,” in David
Lesch, ed., The Middle East and the United
States (Boulder:
Westview Press, 1999), pp.
13–26.
(12)
Erik Goldstein, “The
Eastern Question; The Last Phase,” in
Michael Dockrill, ed., The Paris Peace
Conference, 1919: Peace without
Victory (New York:
Palgrave, 2001), p. 145 (“Lloyd George
is a cheat!”). MacMililan, Paris
1919, pp. 33 (“God himself
was content”),
145.
(13)
FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace
Conference, vol. 11: Proceedings, July
1, 1919, p. 184; July 8, 1919, p. 284
(“perfectly useless proposirion”).
Lansing, Peace Negotiations, p. 149.
Manuel, Realities, p. 255
(“whole disgusting scramble”). Herbert
Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover
(New York: Macmillan, 1957), p. 385.
William L. Westerniann Paris Peace
Conference Diaries, p. 69. Feroz
Ahmad, The
Making of Modern Turkey
(New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 55
(“America, which knows”). James B.
Gidney, A
Mandate for Armenia
(Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press,
1967), pp. 17, 184–87, 188 (“Here is a
man’s job”). General James G. Harbord,
Conditions
in the Near East: American Military
Mission to Armenia
(Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1920).
(14)
Papers of
Woodrow Wilson, vol. 64:
“The President’s State of Health,”
Lansing Memorandum, Nov. 5. 1919, pp.
56-57. Henry Cabot Lodge, The Senate and the
League of Nations (New
York: Scribner, 1925), p. 184
(“obligation to preserve”). Sachar,
Emergence
of the Middle East, pp.
349, 361. Heckscher, Woodrow
Wilson, p. 609 (“the
American
people”).
(15)
Marjorie Housepian
Dobkin, Smyrna
1922: The Destruction of a
City (Kent, Ohio: Kent
State Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 101,
103, 112, 166 (“I’ll never forget”).
Horton, Blight of Asia, p. 113 (“a
fittingly Lurid”). FRUS,
1923, vol. 2: Child and Grew to
Hughes, Dec. 13, 1922, p. 921 (“find
[the] means”); Child and Grew to
Hughes, Jan. 3, 1923, p. 946; Harding
to Hughes, Jan. 15, 1923, p. 950 (“The
most ardent”). Documents on British Foreign
Policy, 1919–1939:
British Secretary’s Notes, April 10,
1920, pp. 20-21; April 20, 1920, pp.
60-61. Daniel, “Armenian Question,” p.
262.
(16)
William L. Westermann
Paris Peace Conference Diaries, pp.
179-80 (“When boldness”). Lansing,
Peace
Negotiations, p. 175
(“The seeds of discontent”). Palmer,
Bliss,
Peacemaker, p. 370
(“there never had been”). DeNovo,
American
Interests, pp. 299–301.
Gelvin, “Ironic Legacy of the
King-Crane Commission,” p. 13 (“It is
not possible”). Sachar, Emergence of the
Middle East, p.
365.
الفصل الثاني والعشرون: إحياء الخيالات
(1)
One could easily dedicate a
book to the innumerable books written
about Lawrence of Arabia. See, e.g., David
Fromkin, “The Importance of T. E.
Lawrence,” New
Criterion 10, no. 1 (Sept.
1995). John E. Mack, A Prince of Our
Disorder: The Life of T. E.
Lawrence (Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1990), pp. 221 (“limelight of
history”), 265 (“On the whole”), 275.
Phillip Knightley and Colin Simpson,
The Secret
Lives of Lawrence of Arabia
(London: Thomas Nelson, 1969), pp. 52-53.
Lawrence James, The Golden Warrior (New
York: Paragon House, 1993), pp. 272,
276-77. See also Shotwell, At the Paris Peace
Conference, p. 131
(“younger successor of
Mohammed”).
(2)
Norman Bowen, Lowell Thomas: The
Stranger Everyone Knows
(Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp.
39-40. Lowell Thomas, Good Evening
Everybody (New York:
Morrow, 1976), pp. 131–39. Lowell Thomas,
With Lawrence
in Arabia, pp. 12 (the
Uncrowned King” and “one of most
picturesque”), 20 (“He walked rapidly”),
22 (“restored the sacred places”), 75
(“united the wandering tribes”), 76
(“reincarnation of a prophet”), 114 (“400
Turks”), 264 (“a great scoop”). Joel
Hodson, Lawrence
of Arabia and American
Culture (Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood, 1995), pp. 43, 61, 62 (“quite
without intention” and “the George
Washington”). Knightley, Secret Lives,
p. 53 (“break up the Islamic”). Knock,
To End All
Wars, p. 213 (“chuckled in
the desert”). Mack, Prince of Our
Disorder, pp. 276 (“I saw
your show”), 277 (“I don’t bear him”).
Hodson, Lawrence
of Arabia, pp. 30, 43, 66
(“Come with me”).
(3)
Michael North,
Reading
1922: A Return to the Scene of the
Modern (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 21–24.
Willa Sibert Cather, My Ántonia
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977),
pp. 6 (“more inscribed”), 10 (“the
beard of an Arabian”). Little,
American
Orientalism, pp.
17-18.
الباب السادس: نفط وحرب وهيمنة
الفصل الثالث والعشرون: من الإنجيل إلى مضخَّات النفط
(1)
Harrison, Doctor in
Arabia, pp. 24 (“not even
their religion”), 30. DeNovo, American
Interests, p. 361 (“of
little commercial importance”). USNA,
Records of the Department of State
Relating to Internal Affairs of Saudi
Arabia: Brandt to the Secretary of State,
May 5, 1930 (“demonstrated that the
Arabs”). Eleanor Calverley, My Arabian Days and
Nights (New York: Crowell,
1958), p. 7 (“until that moment”). Mary B.
Allison, Doctor
Mary in Arabia: Memoirs
(Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1994), p.
25 (“like being born”). Thomas W. Lippman,
Inside the
Mirage: America’s Fragile Partnership
with Saudi Arabia (Boulder:
Westview Press, 2004,) pp. 10-11 (“I know
you are”). Paul L. Armerding, Doctors for
the Kingdom: The Work of the American
Mission Hospitals in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, 1913–1955 (Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Eerdmans, 2003), p. 115. See also Miriam
Joyce, Kuwait,
1945-1946: An Anglo-American
Perspective (London: Frank
Cass, 1998), p. xviii, and Thomas Lippman,
“The Pioneers,” Saudi Aramco World 55, no.
3 (May–June 2004), and Eleanor A. Doumato,
Getting God’s
Ear: Women, Islam and Healing in Saudi
Arabia and the Gulf (New
York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2000), pp.
43–48. According to Doumato, the most
common ailment Harrison treated was
“inability,” i.e., male sexual
dysfunction.
(2)
Anthony Sampson,
The Seven
Sisters: The Great Oil Companies
and the World They
Shaped (New York:
Bantam, 1991), p. 83. Longrigg,
Oil in the
Middle East, pp. 38-39.
Bryson, American Diplomatic
Relations, pp. 103–5.
Anthony C. Brown, Oil, God and Gold:
The Story of Aramco and the Saudi
Kings (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1999), pp. 24–28. Benjamin
Shwadran, The
Middle East, Oil and the Great
Powers (Jerusalem:
Israel Universities Press, 1973), pp.
237-38, 288. H. St. John Philby,
Saudi
Arabia (London: Ernest
Benn, 1955), p.
330.
(3)
In spite of his seminal
role in the establishment of
U.S.-Saudi relations, Twitchell has
yet to be the subject of a serious
study, and the descriptions of him
remain fragmentary. See, e.g., William
Yale, The Near
East: A Modern History
(Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press,
1958), p. 362. D. Van der Meulen,
The Wells
of Ibn Saud (New York:
Praeger, 1957), p. 136. George
Kheirallah, Arabia Reborn
(Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico
Press, 1952), pp. 239-40. Moukhtar
Ani, Saudi
Arabia: Its People, Its Society,
Its Culture (New Haven:
HRAF Press, 1959), p.
234.
(4)
Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic
Quest for Oil, Money and
Power (New York:
Touchstone, 1992), pp. 289–91. George
Stocking, Middle East Oil: A Study in
Political and Economic
Controversy (Kingsport,
Tenn.: Vanderbilt Univ. Press, 1970),
p. 76. Sampson, Seven
Sisters, pp. 109–11.
Joseph W. Walt, “Saudi Arabia and the
Americans, 1928–1951” (Ph.D. diss.,
Northwestern Univ., 1960), p. 87
(“Some of these firms”). H. J. B.
Philby, Arabian Oil Ventures
(Washington, D.C.: Middle East
Institute, 1964), p. 124. Philby
relates that the king in fact slept
through much of the discussions on the
agreement and that his—Philby’s—advice
weighed decisively in favor of the
Americans.
(5)
Sampson, Seven
Sisters, p. 111
(“descending from the skies”). Wallace
Stegner, Discovery: The Search for Arabian
Oil (Beirut: Export
Press, 1971), pp.
3–54.
(6)
Aaron Miller, Search for Security:
Saudi Arabian Oil and American
Foreign Policy,
1939–1949 (Chapel Hill:
Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1980),
p. 25 (“We should let matters”),
26-27. Irvine H. Anderson, ARAMCO,
the United
States, and Saudi Arabia: A Study
of the Dynamics of Foreign Oil
Policy, 1933–1950
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press,
1981), p. 25. Kaplan, Arabists,
p. 71 (“the real bulwark”). DeNovo,
American
Interests, p. 337.
Lippman, Inside the Mirage, p.
117 (“Saudi Arabia is presumably”).
William Eddy Papers, box 17: Excerpt
from Eddy’s unpublished memoirs (“We
Muslims”). Karl Twitchell Papers, box
5: Twitchell to Cleveland Dodge, March
3, 1932. Stegner, Discovery,
p. 65 (“If utter faith”).
(7)
USNA, Records of the
Department of State relating to the
Internal Affairs of Saudi Arabia,
1930–1944: 890f.00/53, Fish to the
State Department, April 12, 1940
(“German ruthlessness”); 890f.00/60,
Twitchell to Murray, May 14, 1941;
890f.00/73, Memorandum on conditions
in Saudi Arabia based on an interview
with a reliable informant (American)
returned recently from there Oct. 29,
1941. Parker T. Hart, Saudi Arabia and the
United States: Birth of a Security
Partnership
(Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press,
1998), p. 37. Rex J. Casillas,
Oil and
Diplomacy: The Evolution of
American Foreign Policy in Saudi
Arabia, 1933–1945 (New
York: Garland, 1987), pp. 33, 37, 40.
Miller, Search
for Security, pp. 33-34
(“It can
easily”).
(8)
Shwadran, Middle
East, p. 317. Brown,
Oil, God
and Gold, pp. 106-7
(“extending financial assistance”).
USNA, Records of the Department of
State relating to the Internal Affairs
of Saudi Arabia, 1930–1944: 890f.00/73
Memorandum on Conditions in Saudi
Arabia, Oct. 29, 1941; 890f.00/81,
Strictly confidential for Secretary
and Under Secretary, April 17, 1943
(“Jews had been
hostile”).
الفصل الرابع والعشرون: نشوب صراع لا حلَّ له
(1)
The study of the origins of
the Arab-Israeli conflict has generated
innumerable books. Few of these, however,
are free of an expressed bias toward one
side or the other in the conflict. For a
sample of some of the more highly regarded
scholarly works on the subject, see Philip
Mattar, The Mufti
of Jerusalem: Al-Hajj Amin alHusayni
and the Palestinian National
Movement (New York:
Columbia Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 12–49.
Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel,
1917–1948 (Bloomington:
Indiana Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 41–232. J.
C. Hurewtiz, The Struggle for Palestine
(New York: Greenwood, 1968), pp.
3–94.
(2)
Irwin Oder, “The United
States and the Palestine Mandate,
1920–1948: A Study of the Impact of
Interest Groups on Foreign Policy”
(Ph.D. diss., Columbia Univ., 1956),
pp. 75 (“an influential and noisy”),
320. Gideon Biger, “The American View
of the Tel Hai Affair,” Journal of Israeli
History 19, no. 1
(1998): 91–94. Manuel, Realities,
pp. 272, 277 (“[We] should avoid”),
280–84, 291-92 (“They would turn
Trotsky”), 293–99. Barry Rubin,
The Great
Powers in the Middle East,
1941–1947 (London: Cass,
1980), p. 22 (“decidedly
anti-Jewish”). See also Knee,
“Anglo-American Relations,” pp.
13–17.
(3)
Naomi Cohen, The Year after the
Riots: American Responses to the
Palestine Crisis of
1929-30 (Detroit: Wayne
State Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 22, 23
(“A crowd of savage Arabs”), 27-28, 29
(“ordinary law-abiding”), 33 (“The
Jews are always”). USNA, RG 59:
Palestine Internal Affairs: Knabenshue
to Stimson (n.d.) (“Jewish financial
influence”); Knabenshue to Stimson,
Aug. 24, 1929 (“provocative acts”);
Knabenshue to Stimson, Aug. 26, 1929;
Hamilton Fish Jr. to Stimson, Aug. 28,
1929; Knabenshue to Stimson Oct. 19,
1929. CZA, A243/104, Stephen S. Wise
Papers: Memorandum of Meeting of SSW
with Secretary of State Stimson on the
S.S. Leviathan, Sept. 1,
1931. Manuel, Realities, pp. 302-3.
“Says Syria Admires Us,” New York
Times, Jan. 11, 1929;
“4th in Jerusalem Brings Out Throngs,”
New York Times, July 5, 1929. “U.S.
Investigates Palestine Consul,”
Washington
Post, Sept. 7, 1929.
Oder, “United States and the Palestine
Mandate,” p.
156.
(4)
CZA, A 243/178, Stephen
S. Wise Paliers: Wise to Frankfurter,
July 29, 1937; O’Toole to Wise, July
30, 1937; Wise to Felix Frankfurter,
Oct. 16, 1938. FRUS, 1937, vol. 4:
Memorandum by Wallace Murray, July 12,
1937, p. 893 (“Any disposition”);
1938, vol. 2: Memorandum submitted to
the Secretary of State by American
Jewish Delegation, Oct. 14, 1938, p.
956 (“radical departure”). USNA,
Palestine Internal Affairs: Wadsworth
to Secretary of State, July 7, 1938
(“Palestinian Jews”); Murray to
Secretary of State, Feb. 1, 1939 (“In
America there is”); Wadsworth to
Secretary of State, June 27, 1939.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy Presidential
Library, President’s Office Files, box
135, Series: Special Events, Folder:
1939 (“It seems to me”): Letter
Written to His Father following Trip
to Palestine. Halperin, Political World of
American Zionism, pp.
21–26. Louis Rapoport, Shake Heaven and
Earth: Peter Bergson and the
Struggle to Rescue the Jews of
Europe (Jerusalem:
Gefen, 1999), p. 43 (“Americans don’t
like Jews”), Philip J. Bararn,
The
Department of State in the Middle
East, 1919–1945
(Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania
Press, 1978), pp. 263,
268.
(5)
The proposal for
transferring 300,000 Palestinian Arabs
was first tabled by Edward Norman, a
non-Zionist Jew and heir to a family
fortune made from food concessions
from the 1893 world’s fair. The cost
of the project was estimated at
$ 300 million, to be
contributed by the Western powers and
wealthy American Jews. Neither Britain
nor France, however, showed enthusiasm
for the idea and Roosevelt made no
real effort to implement it. See
Rafael Medoff, Baksheesh Diplomacy: Secret
Negotiations between American
Jewish Leaders and Arab Officials
on the Eve of World War
II (Lanham, Md.:
Lexington Books, 2001), pp. 3, 140
(“less right there”), 141–43. On
Roosevelt’s foreign policy in general,
and toward Palestine in particular,
see Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt
and American Foreign
Policy, 1932–1945 (New
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979), p. 20
(“a chameleon on plaid”). Willard
Range, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s World
Order (Athens: Univ. of
Georgia Press, 1959), p. 8. James
MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The
Soldier of Freedom (New
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
1970), pp. 108, 397 (“I would put
barbed”). Conrad Black, Franklin Delano
Roosevelt: Champion of
Freedom (London
Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003),
p. 928. Frederick W. Marks III,
Wind over
Sand: The Diplomacy of Franklin
Roosevelt (Athens,
Georgia: Univ. of Georgia Press,
1988), p. 253. William Roger Louis,
The British
Empire in the Middle
East, 1945–1951 (New
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1984), p.
243 (“Holy Gehad”), Memoirs of Cordell
Hull, vol. 2 (New York:
Macmillan, 1948), p. 1530 (“It is
something”). Steiner, Religious
Beliefs, pp. 66-67.
Grose, Israel
in the Mind, pp. 113,
138-39 (“little
baksheesh”).
(6)
FRUS, 1936, vol. 3:
Secretary of State to Ambassador in
the United Kingdom, July 27, 1936, p.
444 (“influential Jewish circles” and
“of course presume”); 1937, vol. 2:
Memorandum from Secretary of State to
the American Ambassador in the United
Kingdom to be delivered to the
British, p. 890 (“Large sections”).
Manuel, Realities, pp. 306–8.
PRO, FO 371: Mr. Mallet to British
Embassy. Sept. 21, 1936 (“[It] is
hardly worth”); Sir R. Lindsay to
Viscount Halifax. Nov. 25, 1938.
Grose, Israel
in the Mind, p. 100.
USNA, Palestine Internal Affairs:
Knabenshue to Murray, May 25, 1935
(“The White Paper”). Henry L.
Feingold, The
Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt
Administration and the Holocaust,
1938–1945 (New
Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1970),
pp. 126–31, 135 (“exponents of
Communism”), 146 (“was
100%”).
(7)
CZA, L66/22: Letter to
Zionist Delegates (n.d.) (“At this
time”); Letter to Heads of
Organizations (n.d.) (“specializing in
delicious”); L66/24: Brainin to
Weisgal, Sept. 20, 1938 (“the most
beautiful girl”); L66/59: Memorandum
on the Opening of the Palestine
Pavilion, May 13, 1939; Brainin to
Bloom, June 30, 1939; L66/77: Press
Release for Tuesday, Feb. 27, 1940;
L66/69: Letter for Palestine Book by
F. H. La Guardia (n.d.). See also
James L. Gelvin, “Zionism and the
Representation of Jewish Palestine at
the New York World’s Fair 1939-40,”
International History Review
22, no. 1 (2000): 37–64.
USNA, Palestine Internal Affairs:
Wadsworth to Secretary of State, Sept.
11, 1938.
(8)
Golda Meir, My Life
(New York: Putnam, 1975), pp. 30 (“New
food”), 74 (“Crowds of beggars”), 81
(“I was profoundly happy”), 140
(“Look, Golda”). Ralph G. Martin,
Golda:
Golda Meir, the Romantic
Years (New York:
Scribner, 1988), p. 98 (“I owed
America”).
(9)
Edward Wagenknecht,
Daughters
of the Covenant: Portraits of Six
Jewish Women (Amherst:
Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1983),
pp. 153–56. Michael Brown, The Israeli-American
Connection: Its Roots in the
Yishuv, 1914–1945
(Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press,
1996), pp. 135-36, 141–45. Marvin
Lowenthal, Henrietta Szold: Life and
Letters (New York:
Viking, 1942), pp. 244, 264. Simon
Noveck, Great Jewish Personalities in
Modern Times (Washington, D.C.: B’nai
B’rith Department of Adult Jewish
Education, 1960), pp. 324 (“first lady
of Palestine”), 331. Michael Shire,
The Jewish
Prophet: Visionary Words from Moses
to Heschel (London:
Frances Lincoln, 2002), p. 93
(“Political scores”). CZA, Szold
Papers, Speech before the Zionists of
America Administration Committee, Jan.
9, 1936 (“I became a Zionist”). Jewish
Women’s Archive, “JWA—Henrietta
Szold—Building the Yishuv,”
http://www.jwa.org/exhibits/wov/szold/yishuv.html
(Oct. 6, 2005). See also Baila Round
Shargel, “American Jewish Women in
Palestine: Bessie Gotsfeld, Henrietta
Szold and the Zionist Enterprise,”
American
Jewish History 90, no. 2
(June 2002).
(10)
Arthur Goren, Dissenter in Zion:
From the Writings of Judah L.
Magnes (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 4–16,
23-24, 32–40, 276 (“a country of two
nations”), 277-78, 279 (“I have
learned”). Daniel P. Kotzin, “An
Attempt to Americanize the Yishuv:
Judah L. Magnes in Mandatory
Palestine,” Israel Studies 5, no. 1
(2000): 3–18. Neil Caplan, Futile
Diplomacy, vol. 2
(London: Frank Cass, 1983), pp. 36-37,
87–90. Susan L. Hattis, The Bi-national Idea
in Palestine during the Mandatory
Times ([Haifa]:
Shikmona, 1970), pp. 65-66, 100,
144–48, 171, 184. Shalom Rarzabi,
Between
Zionism and Judaism: The Radical
Circle in Brith Shalom,
1925–1933 (Leiden:
Brill, 2002),pp. 252-53. Hagit Lavsky,
Before
Catastrophe: The Distinctive Path
of German Zionism
(Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press,
1996), pp. 211, 212, 213–17. Michael
J. Cohen, “Secret Diplomacy and
Rebellion in Palestine, 1936–1939,”
International Journal of Middle East
Studies 8, no. 3 (July 1977): 380,
383, 400-1. Menahem Kaufman, The Magnes-Philby
Negotiations, 1929: The Historical
Record (Jerusalem:
Magnes Press, 1998), pp. 18, 100-1,
113. “Judah Magnes,”
http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1349&subject=70,
Oct. 11,2005 (“may have to live” and
“We can establish”).
(11)
James R. Krugei,
Turning On
Water with a Shovel: The Career of
Elwood Mead
(Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico
Press, 1992), pp. 103, 107-8, 109
(“wards of the organization”). Robert
E. Rook, “An American in Palestine:
Elwood Mead and Zionist Water Resource
Planning, 1923–1936,” Arab Studies
Quarterly 22, no. 1 (Winter 2000):
71–79. Elwood Mead, “The New
Palestine,” American Review of Reviews
70, no. 6 (Dec. 1924): 624 (“promise
to be a replica”), 626 (“is as
attractive”), 628 (“The Zionist
movement”).
(12)
Rook, “Blueprints and
Prophets,” pp. 91-92, 99 (“morgue of
civilizations”), 101–10, 139-40.
Walter C. Lowdermilk, Palestine: Land of
Promise (New York:
Harper, 1944), pp. 6-7 (“most
remarkable devotion”), 8–24, 229 (“the
lever that will lift”). Nathan
Godfried, Bridging the Gap between
Rich and Poor: American Economic
Development Policy toward the Arab
East, 1942–1949 (New York: Greenwood,
1987), p. 168. Rory Miller, “Bible and
Soil: Walter Clay Lowdermilk, the
Jordan Valley Project and the
Palestine Debate,” Middle Eastern
Studies 39, no. 2 (April
2003): 56–63. See also Walter C.
Lowdermilk, Conquest of the Land through Seven
Thousand Years (1948;
reprint, Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Soil
Conservation Service,
1953).
(13)
Shabtai Teveth, Ben Gurion: The
Burning Ground,
1886–1948 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1987), pp. 97-98 (“absurd, resembling
cages”), 109–20. Allon Gal, David Ben-Gurion and
the American Alignment for a Jewish
State (Bloomington:
Indiana Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 15
(“bustling, industrious” and “We, who
seek”), 16, 21, 103, 149, 196 (“London
has not ceased”), 203, 216. See also
Michael Bar-Zohar, Ben-Gurion: A
Biography, translated by
Peretz Kidron (New York: Adama Books,
1977). Dan Kurzman, Ben-Gurion: Prophet
of Fire (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 1983), pp.
115–19.
(14)
David S. Wyman and Rafael
Medoff, A Race against Death: Peter
Bergson, America and the Holocaust
(New York: New Press, 2004), pp.
19–29, 107 (“Mi samcha”). Rapoport,
Shake Heaven and Earth, pp. 35–43,
56-57 (“An army with such”). 15. David
Shapiro, From
Philanthropy to Activism: The
Political Transformation of
American Zionism in the Holocaust
Years, 1933–1945
(Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1994), pp.
71, 84. Silverberg, If I Forget Thee,
O Jerusalem, pp. 188–90, 206 (“The
more I think”). Raider, Emergence of American
Zionism, pp. 205-6
(“battleground”). Halperin, Political
World of American Zionism, p.
121. Gal, David BenGurion, p. 69
(“Right now”). Walter Laqueur, A
History of Zionism (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 1989), pp. 546-47.
For a detailed dicussion of the
New York
Times treatment of the
Holocaust, see Laurel Leff, Buried by the Times:
The Holocaust and America’s Most
Important Newspaper (New
York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005),
pp. 2-3, 13,
42.
(15)
A Pocket Guide to North
Africa (Washington, D.C.: War and Navy
Department, 1942), pp. 14, 19, 23, 28,
34, 39–41. William L. Langer and S.
Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War,
1940–1941 (Gloucester: B. Smith,
1968), pp. 380-81, 590, 592 (“We in
the United”), 778 (“We should not
get”). Michael J. Cohen, “American
Influence on British Policy in the
Middle East during World War Two:
First Attempts at Coordinating Allied
Policy on Palestine,” American Jewish
Historical Quarterly 67,
no. 1 (Sept. 1977): 51-52 (“Our
reputation”). Robert Murphy, Diplomat among
Warriors (Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), p. 66–68, 91
(“The vice consuls”). George F. Howe,
Northwest
Africa: Seizing the Initiative in
the West (Washington,
D.C.: Center of Military History,
1991), pp. 57-58. FRUS,
1941, vol. 3: British and Free French
Invasion and Occupation of Syria and
Lebanon; Good Offices of the United
States in Arranging Armistice:
Personal to the President, June 7,
1941, pp.
725-26.
الفصل الخامس والعشرون: شعلة من أجل الشرق الأوسط
(1)
Dallek, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, pp. 346–49, 262.
Mark W. Clark, Calculated Risk (New York:
Harpe 1950), pp. 50 (“Why stick your
head”), 107. Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War
in North Africa, 1942-1943
(New York: Henry Holt, 2002), pp. 12-13,
14 (“indirect contribution”), 16 (“was now
our principal objective”), 17-18, 46-47.
Hale, “General’ Eaton,” p. 28. George S.
Patton, War as I
Knew It (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1995), p. 16. Pocket Guide to North
Africa, pp.
4-5.
(2)
Arthur L. Funk, “Negotiating
the ‘Deal with Darlan,” Journal of Contemporary
History 8, no. 2 (April
1973): 81–117. Atkinson, Army at Dawn,
pp. 3 (“North Africa was”), 287-88. Brown,
Oil, God and
Gold, pp. 104-5 (“sons of
the Mughreb”). Carleton S. Coon, A North Africa Story:
The Anthropologist as OSS
Agent (Ipswich, Mass.:
Gabmit Press, 1980), p. 14. Howe,
Northwest
Africa, pp. 108-9. Clark,
Calculated
Risk, pp. 155 (“I had
constantly”), 269.
(3)
A. J. Liebling, The Road Back to
Paris (Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1944), pp. 225
(“as examples”), 290 (“a wild
competition”). Kenneth G. Crawford,
Report on
North Africa (New York:
Farrar and Rinehart, 1943), pp. 45-46
(“warriors fighting”). Richard
Breitman, “The Allied War Effort and
the Jews, 1942-1943,” Journal of
Contemporary History 20,
no. 1 (Jan. 1985): 140-41, 142 (“Arabs
don’t mind Christians”). The Conferences at
Washington, 1941-1942,
and Casablanca, 1943 (Washington,
D.C.: GPO, 1968): Conversation between
President Roosevelt and General
Nogués, Jan. 17, 1943, p. 608
(“eliminate … the understandable”).
Carlo D’Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier’s
Life (New York: Henry
Holt, 2002), p. 356 (“Many things done
here”). There were few exceptions to
the general Arab opposition to
removing the wartime restrictions on
Jews; see Robert Satloff, “In Search
of ‘Righteous Arabs,” Commentary
118, no. 1 (July
2004).
(4)
Gaddis Smith, American Diplomacy
during the Second World
War, 1941–1945 (New
York: Knopf, 1985), pp. 96 (“A
century”), 100–10. Stephane Bernard,
The
Franco-Moroccan
Conflict, 1943–1953 (New
Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1968), p. 3.
Annie Lacroix-Riz, Les Protectorats
d’Afrique du Nord entre Ia France
et Washington: Du debarquement a
l’independance, Maroc et
Tunisie, 1942–1956
(Paris: L’Harmatran, 1988), pp. 11–21.
Benjamin Rivlin, “The United States
and Moroccan International Status,
1943–1956: A Contributory Factor in
Morocco’s Reassertion of Independence
from France,” International Journal of
African
Historical Studies 15,
no. 1 (1982): 64-65, 74. Egya N.
Sangmuah, “Sultan Mohammed ben
Youssef’s American Strategy and the
Diplomacy of North African Liberation,
1943–61,” Journal of Contemporary
History 27, no. 1 (Jan.
1992): 130. Kenneth Pendar, Adventure in
Diplomacy: The Emergence of General
de Gaulle in North
Africa (London: Cassell,
1966), pp. 142, 146-47. Elliott
Roosevelt, As
He Saw It (New York:
Duell, Sloan and Pierce, 1946), pp.
110 (“differ sharply), 111 (“French
and British financiers”), 112 (“A new
future” and “Glowering”). Ernie Pyle,
Here Is
Your War (New York:
Henry Holt, 1943), p. 44 (“Arab
farmers”). FRUS, 1944, vol. 5:
Mayer to the Secretary of State, Jan.
5, 1944, pp.
527–29.
(5)
FRUS, 1945, vol. 8:
Henderson to Truman, Nov. 10, 1945, p.
10 (“friendly disinterest”). Russell
Buhite, Patrick J. Hurley and American
Foreign Policy (Ithaca:
Cornell Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 6–15,
27, 113 (“certain very rich”), 313.
Don Lohbeck, Patrick J. Hurley
(Chicago: H. Regnery, 1956), pp.
188-89, 190 (“Our President”), 191
(“My job”), 193 (“America could not”),
195 (“starvation was the easiest”),
210-11 (“the economy of colonial”).
Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers,
Office Files, 1933–1945, Pt. 4:
Subject Files, reel 19; Hurley to
Roosevelt, May 5, 1943 (“exploitation
and imperialism”); Hurley to
Roosevelt, June 9, 1943 (“similar to
those embodied”). Abbas Milani,
“Hurley’s Dream,” Hoover
Digest, no. 3 (2003):
149 (“It is the purpose” and “free
governments”), 150 (“unselfish
American Policy”). T. H. Vail Motter,
The Persian
Corridor and Aid to
Russia (Washington,
D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military
History, 1952), pp. 6-7. See also Mark
Hamilton Lytle, The Origins of the
Iranian-American Alliance, 1941–1953
(New York: Holmes & Meier,
1987), pp. 48–59, 60 (“messianic
globaloney”). William R. Louis,
Imperialism
at Bay, 1941–1945:
The United
States and the Decolonization of
the British Empire
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), p.
226 (“the colonial
system”).
(6)
FRUS, 1943, vol. 4:
Secretary of State to Wiley, Nov. 12,
1943, p. 1045; 1944, vol. 5: Morris to
the Secretary of State, Oct. 9, 1944,
p. 455. Phillip Baram, “Undermining
the British: Department of State
Policies in Egypt and the Suez Canal
before and during World War II,”
Historian 40, no. 4
(Aug. 1978): 633–37, 641–45. Thomas A.
Bryson, Seeds
of the Mideast Crisis: The United
States Diplomatic Role in the
Middle East during World War
II (Jefferson, NC.:
McFarland, 1981), pp. 85–89, 98-99.
Rubin, Great
Powers, pp. 141-42.
Walter L. Browne, The Political History
of Lebanon, 1920–1950,
vol. 2 (Salisbury, NC.: Documentary
Publications, 1977), pp. 271, 386-87.
Louis, Imperialism at Bay, p.
169. Steven L. Spiegel, The Other
Arab-Israeli Conflict: Making
America’s Middle East Policy, from
Truman to Reagan
(Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press,
1985), p. 13 (“New Deal” and “you will
be”). On America’s prewar refusal to
encoirage Egyptian nationalists, see
Erez Manela, “Friction from the
Sidelines: Diplomacy, Religion and
Culture in American-Egyptian
Relations, 1919–1939,” The United States and
the Middle East: Diplomatic and
Economic Relations in Historical
Perspective (New Haven:
Yale Center for International and Area
Studies, 2000), pp. 28–35. On Hooker
Doolittle’s contribution to Tunisian
independence, see David D. Newsom,
“The Unsung Diplomat,” Christian Science
Monitor, April 12,
2000.
(7)
FRUS, 1944, vol. 5:
Roosevelt to Landis, March 6, 1944, p.
2. James M. Landis Papers, box 164:
Excerpt from a “Round Table” at the
Univ. of Chicago entitled “The Middle
East Zone of Conflict?” July 22, 1945
(“The trouble is”). Donald A. Ritchie,
James M.
Landis: Dean of the
Regulators (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 3
(“I’ve been called”), 121–23, 124 (“A
diffusion of power”), 126, 130. Robert
Vitalis, “The New Deal in Egypt; The
Rise of Anglo-American Commercial
Competition in World War II and the
Fail of Neocolonialism,” Diplomatic
History 20, no. 2
(Spring 1996): 213, 220–24. Martin W.
Wilmington, The Middle East Supply
Centre (Albany: State
Univ. of New York Press, 1971), pp.
4–7, 62–72, 167. Peter L Hahn,
The United
States, Great Britain and Egypt,
1945–1956: Strategy and Diplomacy
in the Early Cold War
(Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina
Press, 1991), pp. 14–17. Godfried,
Bridging
the Gap, pp. 483–90.
Arthur C. Millspaugh, Americans in
Persia (Washington.
D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1946),
pp. 55, 64, 84-85 (“The Persian
government”).
(8)
Oder, “United States and
the Palestine Mandate,” pp. 326-27. On
the Millspaugh and Schwarzkopf
Missions, see FRUS, 1944, vol. 4:
Ford to Secretary of State, Feb. 2,
1944, p. 391; Ford to Secretary of
State, April 11, 1944, p. 395; Morris
to Secretary of State Oct. 11, 1944,
p. 430. James Bill, The Eagle and the
Lion: The Tragedy of
American-Iranian
Relations (New Haven:
Yale Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 24-25,
27. Michael K. Sheehan, Iran: The Impact of
United States Interests and
Policies, 1941–1943
(Brooklyn: Theo Gaus’ Sons, 1968), pp.
16-17. Lytle, Origins of the Iranian-American
Alliance, pp.
112–16.
(9)
Wilmington, Middle East Supply
Centre, p. 167 (“the
time has come”). FRUS,
1942, vol. 4: Welles to Kirk, Feb. 26,
1942, p. 564; 1943, vol. 4: Secretary
of State to the Secretary of the
Interior, Nov. 13, 1943, p. 942 (“the
oil of Saudi Arabia”); 1944, vol. 5;
Hull to Winnant, Oct. 17, 1944, p. 666
(“a covert contest”); Davies to
Murray, Dec. 27, 1944, p. 9; 1944,
vol. 5: Murray to the Under Secretary
of State, Nov. 23, 1944, pp. 35–36.
David Long, The United States and Saudi
Arabia (Boulder:
Westview Press, 1985), pp. 14-15, 76.
Bryson, Seeds
of Mideast Crisis, p.
39. Miller, Search for Security,
pp. 30-31, 43 (“Just how we could”),
51–55, 60–63, 71, 121, 237. Hart,
Saudi
Arabia, p. 29. Lytle,
Origins of
the Iranian–American
Alliance, pp. 64, 71.
Longrigg, Oil
in the Middle East, pp.
133-34. Shwadran, Middle
East, pp.
330–33.
(10)
Cecil Brown, Suez to
Singapore (New York:
Random House, 1942), p. 12 (“This is
Baghdad”). Erasmus Kloman, Assignment Algiers:
With the OSS in the Mediterranean
Theater (Annapolis:
Naval Institute Press, 2005), p. 17
(“never-never land”). Patton,
War as I
Knew It, p. 10 (“a city
which combines”). Norman Schwarzkopf,
It Doesn’t
Take a Hero (New York:
Bantam, 1992), p. 11 (“magical,
faraway”). Roger Cohen and Claudio
Gatti, In the
Eye of the Storm: The Life of
General H. Norman
Schwarzkopf (New York;
Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1991), pp.
48-49. Humphrey Wynn, Desert
Eagles (Osceola, Wis.:
Motorbooks International, 1993), pp. 9
(“certainly a dirty place”), 10 (“the
last place”), 13 (“Even the beer”).
Ernest D. Whitehead, World War II: An
Ex-Sergeant Remembers
(Kearney: Morris Publishing, 1996), 36
(“What are we doing”). The Papers of Dwight
David Eisenhower, ed.
Alfred Chandler (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins Univ. Press, 1970), vol. 2;
Dwight Eisenhower to John Eisenhower,
Nov. 20, 1942, p. 746 (“beautiful and
picturesque”). Clark, Calculated
Risk, p. 157 (“like
illustrations”). Liebling, Road Back to
Paris, p. 243 (“This is
exactly”). “Hey, Jack, which way to
Mecca?” appears in Peter Arno,
Peter
Arno (New York:
Perennial Library, 1990). A Short Guide to
Iraq (Washington, D.C.:
War and Navy Departments, 1944), pp.
3-4 (“you have
seen”).
(11)
Atkinson,
Army at
Dawn, pp. 124
(“Scrofulous, unpicturesque”), 169
(“useless, worthless” and “If they
could have”), 255, 462 (“they were
open”). D’Este, Eisenhower, p. 400 (“I
would rather”). Patton, War as I Knew
It, pp. 5, 47 (“the
morning edition”), 49 (“the utter
degradation”). Whitehead, World War
II, pp. 41, 44 (“The
Arab men”). World War II Diary of Jean Gordon
Peltier (Groveland,
Calif.: Perfect Art, 2000), pp. 37
(“The men spend”), 38 (“the animals
lived”). Howard Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces
from Portugal to Palestine: Quaker
Refugee Relief in World War
II (Lanham, Md.: Univ.
Press of America, 2004), p. 79
(“That may be so”). K. Ray Marrs,
I Was There
When the World Stood
Still (Bloomington: 1st
Books, 2003), p. 301 (“Their long
flowing” and “kill the Arab”).
David Rame, Road to Tunis (New
York: Macmillan, 1944), pp. 14-15,
36. Liebling, Road Back to
Paris, pp. 279, 291.
Stars and
Stripes (Cairo edition),
July 2, 1942 (“Nobody ever
taught”); July 30, 1943 (“buxom”),
Oct. 8, 1943
(“sayeeda”).
(12)
The White
House Papers of Harry
Hopkins, ed. Robert
Sherwood, vol. 2 (London: Lyre and
Spottiswoode, 1949), p. 860
(“horseplay”). Burns, Roosevelt,
pp. 395-96 (“The mills of the gods”).
FRUS, 1943, vol. 4:
lbn Saud to
Roosevelt, May11, 1943,
pp. 773-74 (“Jews have no right”);
1944, vol. 5: Stettenius to Roosevelt,
p. 649 (“It would seriously
prejudice”), Berle to the Secretary of
State, Jan. 28, 1944, pp. 561-62
(“opened for the free entry”);
Sanerthwaite to Secretary of State,
Aug. 3, 1944, p. 607 (“moral as well
as material”); Secretary of State to
Roosevelt, Dec. 13, 1944, p. 649
(“economic concessions”) Secretary of
State to Roosevelt, p. 655 (n.d.);
Tuck to Secretary of State, Nov. 21,
1944, p. 640 (“Democratic America”).
Manuel, Realities, pp.
310–12.
(13)
Jim Bishop, FDR’s Last
Year (New York: Morrow,
1974), pp. 441, 443 (“the Moslem will
not permit”), 435, 445 (“this
prosperity” and “short of war”). John
S. Keating, “Cruise of the USS
Flying
Carpet,” True 33,
no. 199 (Dec. 1953): 108-9, 110 (“lean
and dark”), 111 (“serious damage”).
William Eddy, F.D.R. Meets Ibn Saud
(New York: American Friends of the
Middle East, 1954), pp. 21, 30, 31
(“my most precious”), 34-35 (“Make the
enemy”), 44-45 (“most precious
pearl”). Black, Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, p. 1068
(“whole party”). W. Barry McCarthy,
“Ibn Saud’s Voyage,” Life,
March 19, 1945, pp. 62–64. FRUS,
1944, vol. 5: Secretary of State to
Jidda, April 18, 1944, p. 687
(“thoughts, wants, needs”). Range,
Franklin D.
Roosevelt’s World Order,
p. 149. Burns, Roosevelt, pp. 378-79,
578. White
House Papers of Harry
Hopkins, pp. 860-61
(“horseplay” and “overly impressed”).
Manuel, Realities, pp. 314 (“I
will never rest”), 316-17 (“malicious
misrepresentation”).
الفصل السادس والعشرون: الشرق الأوسط والرجل القادم من ميسوري
(1)
Walter Isaacson and Evan
Thomas, The Wise
Men: Six Friends and the World They
Made (New York: Touchstone,
1986), pp. 255-56. Deborah Welch Larson,
Origins of
Containment: A Psychological
Explanation (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1985), pp. 126–29,
134-35. Alonzo L. Hamby, Man of the People: A
Life of Harry S. Truman
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995), pp.
404–6. David McCullough, Truman (New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), pp.
349 (“great, great tragedy”), 350, 353 (“I
felt like the moon”), 597. Merle Miller,
Plain
Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry
S. Truman (New York:
Putnam, 1974), p. 215 (“It wasn’t just”).
Michael T. Benson, Harry S. Truman and the Founding of
Israel (Westport, Conn.:
Praeger, 1997), pp. 29–33, 34 (“God has
created us”), 35–38, 39 (“a matter of
faith”), 53-54.
(2)
FRUS, 1945, vol. 8:
Henderson to Matthews, Nov. 13, 1945,
p. 1208; Acting Secretary of State to
the Ambassador in France, May 23,
1945, p. 1092; 1946, vol. 7:
Stettinius to Secretary of State, Feb.
7, 1946, p. 763; Secretary of State to
Stettinius, Feb. 9, 1946, p. 766;
Henderson to Truman, Nov. 10, 1945,
pp. 10-11. Hahn, United States, Great
Britain, and Egypt, pp.
20-21 (“the most deserving”), 26–29.
David Lesch, Syria and the United States:
Eisenhower’s Cold War in the Middle
East (Boulder: Westview
Press, 1992), p. 17. G. W. Sand, ed.,
Defending
the West: The Truman-Churchill
Correspondence,
1945–1960 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger,
2004), pp. 92-93, 94. H. W. Brands,
Inside the
Cold War: Loy Henderson and the
Rise of the American
Empire, 1918–1961 (New
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991), pp.
132 (“Your country has”), 134 (“Our
refusal”). Robert Laffey, “United
States Policy toward and Relations
with Syria, 1941–1947” (Ph.D. diss.,
Univ. of Notre Dame, 1981), pp. 85-86.
Irene L. Gendzier, Notes from the
Minefield: United States
Intervention in Lebanon and the
Middle East, 1945–1958
(Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), p.
51.
(3)
Geoff Simons, Libya and the
West: From Independence
to Lockerbie (Oxford: Centre for
Libyan Studies, 2003), p. 18. William
Roger Louis, “American Anticolonialism
and the Dissolution of the British
Empire;” International Affairs
61, no. 3 (Summer 1985):
403–9. Scott L. Bills, The Libyan Arena: The
United States, Britain and the
Council of Foreign
Ministers, 1945–1948
(Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press,
1995), pp. 8, 12, 24, 32. Ronald Bruce
St. John, Libya and the United States: Two
Centuries of Strife
(Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania
Press, 2002), pp. 40,
42-43.
(4)
FRUS, 1945, vol. 8:
Morris to the Secretary of State, Jan.
4, 1945, p. 359; Minor to Acheson,
June 2, 1945, p. 376; Henderson to the
Secretary of State, Aug. 23, 1945, pp.
27-28. Bruce R. Kuniholm, The Origins
of the Cold War in the Near East:
Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy
in Iran, Turkey and
Greece (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), pp.
157–65. Lytle, Origins of the Iranian-American
Alliance, pp. 120–68.
John Gaddis, The United States and the Origins
of the Cold War (New
York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1992), pp.
200, 310-11 (“Now we’ll give”). Barry
Rubin,
Paved with Good Intentions: The
American Experience and
Iran (New York: Penguin,
1981), pp. 33–36. Louise L. Fawcett,
Iran and
the Cold War: The Azerbaijan Crisis
of 1946 (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992), pp.
122–29, 139. Robert J. Donovan,
Conflict
and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry
S. Truman, 1945–1948
(New York: Norton, 1977), pp. 194-95.
Wihian Hillman and Harry Truman,
Mr.
President: The First Publication
from the Personal Diaries, Private
Letters, Papers, and Revealing
Interviews of Harry S. Truman,
Thirty-second President of the
United States of America
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Young,
1952), pp. 22-23: Truman to Byrnes,
Jan. 5, 1946 (“We ought to
protest”).
(5)
FRUS, 1945, vol. 8:
Harriman to the Secretary of State
Moscow, March 21, 1945, p. 1220;
Wilson to the Secretary of State,
Sept. 25, 1945, pp. 1249; 1947, vol.
5: Smith to the Secretary of State,
Jan. 8, 1947, pp. 2-3; MacVeagh to the
Secretary of State, Feb. 11, 1947, p.
17; Report of the State-War-Navy
Coordinating Committee (n.d.), pp.
76-77 (“There is, at the present”).
Joseph C. Satterthwaite, “The Truman
Doctrine: Turkey,” Annals of the
American Academy of Political and
Social and Science 401
(May 1972): 74–84. Robert Frazier,
“Acheson and Formulation of the Truman
Doctrine,” Journal of Modern Greek
Studies 17, no. 2
(1999): 229–51. John Gaddis, The Cold War: A New
History (New York:
Penguin, 2005), p. 28. Kuniholm,
Origins of
the Cold War, p. 425.
Fawcett, Iran
and the Cold War, p.
128. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, p.
251 (“Greece and Turkey”). Lawrence S.
Kaplan, “The Monroe Doctrine and the
Truman Doctrine: The Case of Greece,”
Journal of
the Early Republic 13,
no. 1 (Spring 1993): 2 (“Our foreign
policy”). Laffey, “United States
Policy,” p. 71 (“star rising”). The
text of Truman’s speech to Congress is
available online, through Yale Law
School’s Avalon
Project.
(6)
James M. Burns and Susan
Dunn, The
Three Roosevelts: Patrician Leaders
Who Transformed America
(New York: Grove Press, 2001), p. 516
(“I cannot bear”). McCullough, Truman,
p. 597 (“Everyone else”). Grose,
Israel in
the Mind, pp. 189 (“My
sympathy”), 200 (“One is led”). Arnold
Offner, Another Such Victory: President
Truman and the Cold War,
1945–1953 (Palo Alto: Stanford Univ.
Press, 2002), p. 275 (“to make the
whole world”). Louis, British Empire in the
Middle East, p. 240 (“I
have to
answer”).
(7)
Truman’s policymaking on
Palestine is one of the most lavishly
researched subjects in modern Middle
Eastern history. Notes relating to the
episode contain a representative, but
scarcely exhaustive, selection of
these sources. Benson, Harry S.
Truman, pp. 64-65
(“grievous harm”). Grose, Israel in the
Mind, pp. 203 (“to the
head”), 204 (“because they did not”).
Zvi Ganin, Truman, American Jewry, and
Israel, 1945–1948 (New
York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), p.
39 (“firmly believe”). David
Schoenbaum, The United States and the State of
Israel (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1993), p. 44.
(8)
Peter L. Hahn, Caught in the Middle
East: U.S. Policy toward the
Arab-Israeli Conflict,
1945–1961 (Chapel Hill; Univ. of North
Carolina Press, 2004), pp. 33–36.
Michael J. Cohen, Palestine and the
Great Powers, 1945–1948
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press,
1982), pp. 96–112, 113 (“the further
development”). Ganin, Truman, American
Jewry and Israel, p. 80
(“For the Jews”). Harry S. Truman,
Memoirs, vol. 2: Years of Trial and
Hope (Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1956), p. 57 (“the promised
Jewish homeland”). Grose, Israel in the
Mind, p. 206 (“Jesus
Christ”). Truman Presidential Library:
President’s Secretary File: Jacobson
to Truman, Oct. 7, 1947 (“Harry, my
people”). Benson, Harry S.
Truman, p. 96 (“Terror
and Silver”). The Anglo-American
Committee of Inquiry report is
available on the Avalon Project
website. See also Michael J. Cohen,
ed., The
Anglo-American Committee on
Palestine, 1945-46, vol.
35 of The Rise
of Israel: A Documentary Record
from the Nineteenth Century to
1948 (New York: Garland,
1987).
(9)
FRUS, 1947, vol. 7:
Memorandum of Fraser Wilkins, Jan. 14,
1947, pp. 1003-4; Marshall to the
Embassy in the U.K., Jan. 14, 1947,
pp. 1005-6; Memorandum of Dean
Acheson, Jan. 21, 1947, pp. 1008–11.
Grose, Israel
in the Mind, pp. 202
(“more concerned”), 214 (“sacrificial
labors” and “the title deeds”). Dean
Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years
in the State Department
(Toronto: George-McLeod, 1969), p. 175
(“the most disliked power”). Benson,
Harry S.
Truman and the Founding of
Israel, pp. 81 (“not in
the light”), 93 (“crackpots”). Hahn,
Caught in
the Middle East, pp. 29,
34, 36 (“underground guerrilla
warfare”), 40. The Forrestal Diaries
(New York: Viking, 1951), pp. 180,
245, 303-4, 342, 345. Offner,
Another
Such Victory, p. 274
(“sixty-four dollar
question”).
(10)
Martin Gilbert, Israel: A
History (London: Black
Swan, 1998), p. 147 (“the thousands of
years”). Cohen, Palestine and the
Great Powers, p. 266
(“Zionist beachhead”). Manuel,
Realities, p. 324
(“stuck his neck out”). Sykes,
Crossroads
to Israel, p. 325
(“relentless war”). Forrestal
Diaries, p. 376. Mattar,
Mufti of Jerusalem, p. 110. The
minority UNSCOP plan was submitted by
Iran, India and Yugoslavia; the
majority plan by Australia, Canada,
Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, the
Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, and
Uruguay.
(11)
Truman Presidential
Library: President’s Diaries File,
July 21, 1947 (“The Jews, I find”).
FRUS, 1947, vol. 5:
Marshall to Truman, April 29, 1947, p.
1080; Marshall to Certain Diplomatic
Officers, June 13, 1947, p. 1103;
Henderson to Marshall, Sept. 22, 1947,
p. 1153; Memorandum of Paul Alling,
Sept. 26, 1947, p. 1159; Wadsworth to
Mattison, Nov. 13, 1947, p. 1257.
Cohen, Palestine and the Great
Powers, pp. 293-94, 295
(“get busy”). Hahn, Caught in the Middle
East, pp. 39–41,
48.
(12)
FRUS, Vol. V 1948:
Kennan to Lovett, Feb. 12, 1948, pp.
589–92; Austin to Marshall, March 17,
1948, p. 736; Henderson to Lovett,
April 22, 1948, pp. 841-42 (“decide
once and for all”). Truman, Years of Trial and
Hope, pp. 161, 164, 171,
173. Hahn, Caught in the Middle
East, p. 46 (“British
bullheadedness”). Truman Presidential
Library: President’s Secretary’s File:
Truman to Jacobson, Feb. 27, 1948
(“The situation has been”). Benson,
Harry S.
Truman, pp. 127
(“Harry”), 128 (“You win” and “bank”).
McCullough, Truman, pp. 610-11 (“liar
and a doublecrosser”). Cohen,
Palestine
and the Great Powers, p.
358 (“shocking reversal” and
“surrender to Arab terror”). Dan
Kurzman, Genesis 1948: The First
Arab-Israeli War (New
York: Da Capo Press, 1992), pp. 83,
97. On Zionist fundraising efforts in
the United States, see Yossi Melman
and Dan Raviv, Friends in Deed: Inside the
U.S.-Israel Alliance
(New York: Hyperion, 1994), pp.
40–45.
(13)
FRUS, 1948, vol. 5:
Rusk to Marshall, March 22, 1948, p.
751; Gross to Lovett, May 11, 1948, p.
959. Elsey Papers, May 12, 1948, p.
977 (“a very transparent attempt” and
“pig in the poke”), State Department
to Truman, Aug. 19, 1948, p. 1324
(“are destitute”). Howard M. Sachar,
A History
of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism
to Our Time (New York:
Knopf, 1970), pp. 309, 310 (“What will
happen”). Donovan, Conflict and
Crisis, p. 383 (“If the
President”). Grose, Israel in the
Mind, pp. 290-91, 292
(“I will cross that bridge”), 293
(“What do you mean”). “34 Jews are
Slain in Hospital Convoy,” New York
Times, April 14, 1948.
Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre,
O
Jerusalem (New York:
Simon & Schuster 1972), p. 278
(“there were bodies”). The number of
Arab victims of the Deir Yassin
massacre remains a source of
historical controversy. I have relied
on Matthew Hogan, “The 1948 Massacre
at Deir Yassin,” in Historian
63, no. 2
(2001).
الباب السابع: البحث عن سلامٍ في ظل الهيمنة الأمريكية
الفصل السابع والعشرون: الانسجام والهيمنة
(1)
Brian Urquhart, Ralph Bunche: An
American Life (New York:
Norton, 1993), pp. 103, 122, 164.
Charles P. Henry, Ralph Bunche: Model
Negro or American Other?
(New York: New York Univ., 1999), p.
145. Shabtai Rosenne, “Bunche at
Rhodes: Diplomatic Negotiator,” in
Benjamin Rivlin, ed., Ralph Bunche: The Man
and His Times (New York:
Holmes & Meier, 1990), p. 178.
Eytan Walter, The First Ten Years: A Diplomatic
History of Israel
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
1958), p. 31 (“Have a
look”).
(2)
Acheson, Present at the
Creation, pp. 654-55.
The CIA’s support of the Free Officers
is discussed in a number of sources.
See, e.g., Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations:
The Amorality of Power
Politics (New York:
Simon & Schuster, 1969), and
Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand:
Americas Failure in the Middle
East (New York: Norton,
1980). See also Anwar El Sadat,
Revolt on
the Nile (London: A.
Windgate, 1957), pp. 117-18. Mohammad
Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny: A Personal
Statement (London:
Gollancz, 1955), p. 121. Sayed Ahmed,
Nasser and
American Foreign Policy,
1952–1956 (London: LAAM, 1987), pp.
39–47. Holland, America and
Egypt, p. 26 (“a Moslem
Billy Graham”).
(3)
Sources on Mossadegh and
Operation Ajax abound. See, e.g.,
Rubin, Paved
with Good Intentions,
pp. 54–61, 62 (“Whether it is in
Indo-China”), 63–90, and Mark Hamilton
Lytle, The
Origins of the Iranian-American
Alliance, 1941–1953 (New
York: Holmes & Meier, 1987),
pp. 192–209. See also Stephen Kinzer,
All the
Shah’s Men: An American Coup and
the Roots of Middle East
Terror (Hoboken, N.J.:
John Wiley,
2003).
(4)
FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 18:
NSC 5436/1 United States Policy on
French North Africa, June 1, 1955, pp.
92-93 (“we cannot give”). Matthew
Connelly, A
Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s
Fight for Independence and the
Origins of the Post-Cold War
Era (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 2002), pp. 45, 50 (“The
French are operating”), 52–58, 123
(“having gone so far”), 153-54.
Matthew F. Holland, America and Egypt:
From Roosevelt to
Eisenhower (Westport,
Conn.: Praeger, 1996), p. 30.
Frederick Quinn, The French Overseas
Empire (New York:
Praeger, 2000), p. 227 (“a vast
conspiracy”).
(5)
Dwight David Eisenhower
Papers, White House Correspondence,
box 3: Eisenhower to Dulles, June 16,
1953; Whitman File, International
Series, box 15: Eisenhower to
Churchill, April 7, 1953 (“From
Foster’s personal”). PRO,
FO371/102732/14: Report of Lord
Salisbury’s Conversation with Mr.
Dulles, July 11, 1953 (“The old
colonial attitude”). Evelyn
Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez: Diaries,
1951–1956, ed. John
Charmley (New York: Norton 1986), p.
229. Hahn, United States, Great Britain and
Egypt, pp.
161–64.
(6)
I have written
extensively on Alpha, Gamma, and the
search for Arab-Israeli peace in the
1950s. See, e.g., The Origins of the
Second Arab-Israel War: Egypt,
Israel and the Great
Powers (London: Frank
Cass, 1992); “Escalation to Suez: The
Egypt-Israel Border War, 1949–56,”
Journal of
Contemporary History 24,
no. 3 (1989); “Secret Efforts to
Achieve an Egypt-Israel Settlement
prior to the Suez Campaign,” Middle Eastern
Studies 26, no. 3
(1990); “The Diplomatic Struggle for
the Negev,” Studies in Zionism 2,
no. 1 (1989). On Omega, see FRUS,
1955–1957, vol. 15: Memorandum from
the Secretary of State to the
President, March 28, 1956, p. 410;
Diary Entry by the President, March
28, 1956, p. 425. Salim Yaqub,
Containing
Arab Nationalism: The Eisenhower
Doctrine and the Middle
East (Chapel Hill: Univ.
of North Carolina, 2004), pp. 42–45.
On King Saud’s visit to the United
States, see Nathan J. Citino,
From Arab
Nationalism to Opec: Eisenhower,
King Saud and the Making of
U.S.-Saudi Relations
(Bloomington: Indiana Univ., 2002),
pp. 122-23, 135, and Rachel Bronson,
Thicker Than Oil: America’s Uneasy
Partnership with Saudi Arabia (Oxford:
Oxford Univ., 2006), pp. 74-75.
(7)
PRO, CAB 128/30, July 27,
1956. USNA, 974.7301/7-2756: Paris to
Department, July 27, 1956;
974.7301/6-158: Suez Canal Problem,
1954–58, June 1, 1958. Philip Ziegler,
Mountbatten (London:
Collins, 1985), pp. 537-38. Anthony
Gorst and Scott W. Lucas, “Suez 1956:
Strategy and the Diplomatic Process,”
Journal of
Strategic Studies 23,
no. 1 (1988): 399-400. Robert Rhodes
James, Anthony
Eden (London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson, 1986), p. 166 (“My
object”). Bernard Ménager et at.,
eds., Guy
Mollet: Un camarade en
république (Lille:
Presses Universitaires de Lille,
1987), p. 476 (“totally
dependent”).
(8)
DDE, Duties Papers,
Subject Series, Telephofle Calls, box
5: Allen Dulles to Secretary Dulles,
Oct. 30, 1956; Dulles to Eisenhower,
Oct. 30, 1956; The Secretary to Allen
Dulles, Oct. 30, 1956. PRO, PREM
11/1105: Washington to Foreign Office
Oct. 30, 1956. DDF, III, 1956,
93–95.
(9)
British Broadcasting Company:
Summary of World
Broadcasts, pt. 4,
The Arab
World, Israel, Greece, Turkey,
Persia: Voice of the
Arabs, Jan. 9, 1957; Voice of the
Arabs, Jan. 18, 1957. Yaqub, Containing Arab
Nationalism, pp. 71–90,
205–12, 221–23, 224, 225–36. Alan
Dowty, Middle
East Crisis: U.S. Decision Making
in 1958, 1970 and 1973
(Berkeley: Univ. of California Press,
1984), pp. 1, 27–35, 56, 80. See also
Michael B, Oren, “Israel, the Great
Powers, and the Middle East Crisis of
1958,” Studies
in Zionism 12, no. 2
(1992). For insights into the film
Ben
Hur, I am indebted to
one of my Harvard students, John
Taylor Hebden.
(10)
Warren Bass, Support Any Friend:
Kennedy’s Middle East and the
Making of the U.S-Israel
Alliance (Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press, 2003), pp. 4, 73, 79
(“immense satisfaction”), 100, 111,
128. Douglas Little, “The New Frontier
on the Nile: JFK, Nasser and Arab
Nationalism,” Journal of American
History 75, no. 2
(1988): 500 (“somehow represented
yesterday”), 502, 504, 510–13, 521–24.
Robert Dallek, An Unfinished Life: John F.
Kennedy, 1917–1963
(Boston: Little, Brown, 2003), p. 222
(“The single most important”). Michael
B. Oren, Six
Days of War: Jane 1967 and the
Making of the Modern Middle
East (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 2002), p.
14.
(11)
Bass, Support Any
Friend, pp. 145–49, 158,
185–90. Avner Cohen, Israel and the
Bomb (New York: Columbia
Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 99–107, 108
(“A woman should not”), 155
(“seriously jeopardized”). Mordechai
Gazit, President Kennedy’s Policy toward
the Arab States and Israel:
Analysis and Documents
(Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Univ., 1983), pp.
18, 33, 42, 46-47. Spiegel, Other Arab-Israeli
Conflict, pp. 110–12.
Oren, Six Days
of War, pp. 16-17. The
transcript of the Kennedy-Ben-Gurion
meeting at the Waldorf is available
online at
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/FRUS05_30_61.html.
(12)
William J. Burns,
Economic
Aid and American Policy toward
Egypt, 1955–1981
(Albany: State Univ. Press of New
York, 1985), p. 159 (“go drink”).
Richard B. Parker, The Politics of
Miscalculation in the Middle
East (Bloomington:
Indiana Univ., 1993), p. 105. P. J.
Vatikiotis, Nasser and His
Generation (New York:
St. Martin’s, 1978), pp. 202–12.
Mahmoud Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the
Middle East (New York:
Quartet Books, 1981), pp.
15–17.
(13)
Lyndon Baines Johnson
Presidential Library, National
Security file, Middle East, Israel
boxes 140, 141: Conflicting U.S.
Attitudes toward Military Aid to
Israel, April 20, 1967; U.S.-Israel
Relations, Nov. 3, 1967. USNA, Middle
East Crisis files, 1967, Lot file
68D135, box 1: United States
Statements on Israel: Johnson
Statements, June 1, 1964. William B.
Quandt, “The Conflict in American
Foreign Policy,” in Itamar Rabinovich
and Haim Shaked, eds., From June to October:
The Middle East between 1967 and
1973 (New Brunswick:
Tansction, 1978), pp. 5-6. I. L.
Kenen, Israel’s Defense Line: Her Friends
and Foes in Washington
(Buffalo: Prometheus, 1981), p. 173
(“You have lost”). Douglas Little,
“The Making of a Special Relationship:
The United States and Israel,
1957–68,” International Journal of Middle
East Studies 25, no. 4
(Nov. 1993): 27-75. Michael Karpin,
The Bomb in
the Basement: How Israel Went
Nuclear and What That Means for the
World (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2006), p. 243
(“Take care of the Jews” and “If
Israel is
destroyed”).
(14)
USNA, Middle East Crisis,
Chronology June 4th–7th, box 15:
Memorandum for the Middle East Task
Force, May 29, 1967 (“Let us not
forget”). LBJ, National Security File,
History of the Middle East Conflict,
box 17: Memorandum for the Record, The
Arab-Israeli Crisis, May 27, 1967 (“If
Israel fires first”); box 20: United
States Policy and Diplomacy in the
Middle East Crisis, May 15–June 10,
1967, pp. 56–59 (“Israel will not be
alone” and “I failed”); History of the
Middle East Conflict; box 19:
Memorandum for the Record,
Washington-Moscow “Hot-line” Exchange,
Oct. 22, 1968; Kosygin to Johnson,
June 10, 1967 (10:00 a.m.); Johnson to
Kosygin (10:58 a.m.); Movements of
Sixth Fleet, June 10, 1967; The
President in the Middle East Crisis,
Dec. 19, 1968; Richard Helms Oral
History; Llewellyn Thompson Oral
History. Oren, Six Days of War, pp.
102–16, 164 (“Our goal”),
262–71.
(15)
Craig A. Daigle, “The
Russians Are Going: Sadat, Nixon and
the Soviet Presence in Egypt,
1970-1971,” Middle East Review of
International Affairs 8,
no. 1 (March 2004): 3 (“The difference
between”). William B. Quandt,
Peace
Process: American Diplomacy and the
Arab-Israeli Conflict since
1967, 3d ed.
(Washington, D.C.: Brookings
Institution Press, 2005), pp. 67-68.
Nadav Safran, Israel: The Embattled
Ally (Cambridge: Belknap
Press, 1978), p. 441. Thomas Wheelock,
“Arms for Israel: The Limit of
Leverage,” International Security
3, no. 2 (1987): 124–26. FRUS,
1969–76, vol. E-5, Documents on
Africa, 1969–72: Buchanan to the
President, Feb. 18, 1970 (“Israel is
the current”), on
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/FRUS/nixon/e5/54756.htm.
(16)
Quandt, Peace
Process, pp. 77, 89–102.
Daigle, “Russians Are Going,” pp. 4
(“You would be mistaken”), 7 (“There
is no reason”). Henry A. Kissinger,
Diplomacy (New York:
Simon & Schuster, 1994), pp.
738-39. Henry A. Kissinger, White House
Years (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1979), pp. 596, 603, 622-23,
626.
(17)
George Washington
University, National Security Archive,
“The October War and U.S. Policy,”
Document 63: Secretary’s Staff
Meeting, Oct. 23, 1973, p. 6 (“We
could not make”),
http://www.gwu.edu/nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/.
Henry A. Kissinger, Crisis: The Anatomy
of Two Major Foreign Policy
Crises (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2003), pp. 43, 291,
317 (“It was a tremendous”), 340 (“We
may have to take”). Alexander M. Haig
Jr., with Charles McCarry, Inner Circles: How
America Changed the World: A
Memoir (New York:
Warner, 1992), pp. 409, 411 (“Whatever
it takes”),
412–17.
(18)
Anwar El Sadat, In Search of
Identity: An
Autobiography (New York:
Harper & Row, 1977), pp.
292–95. Abba Eban, Personal Witness:
Israel through My Eyes
(New York: Putnam, 1992), pp. 570–72.
Kenneth W. Stein, Heroic Diplomacy:
Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin,
and the Quest for Arab-Israeli
Peace (New York:
Routledge, 1999), pp. 146–63, 175–79.
George Washington University, National
Security Archive, “The October War and
U.S. Policy,” Document 63: Secretary’s
Staff Meeting, Oct. 23, 1973, p. 7
(“The Europeans behaved”),
http://www.gwu.edu/nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/.
Rashid Khalidi, Resurrecting Empire:
Western Footprints and America’s
Perilous Path in the Middle
East (Boston; Beacon,
2005), pp. 43 (“covert action”),
131.
(19)
Bill Adler, ed.,
The Wit and
Wisdom of Jimmy Earter
(Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel, 1977), pp.
68, 139 (“significant moral
principle”). Jimmy Carter, Living
Faith (New York: Three
Rivers Press, 2001), pp. 22–24, 36
(“fellowship of faith”). Zbigniew
Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of
the National Security Adviser,
1977–1981 (New York:
Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1983), p.
27 (“After a couple of hours”).
Douglas Brinkley, The Unfinished
Presidency: Jimmy Carter’s Journey
beyond the White House
(New York: Viking, 1998), p. 114.
Seyom Brown, The Faces of Power: Constancy and
Change in United States Foreign
Policy from Truman to
Reagan (New York:
Columbia Univ., 1983), pp. 454–56.
Jimmy Carter, The Blood of Abraham: Insights
into the Middle East, new
ed. (Fayetteville: Univ.
of Arkansas Press, 1993), pp. 29, 193
(“The blood of
Abraham”).
(20)
Brown, Faces of
Power, pp. 482-83, 489,
502. Quandt, Peace Process, pp.
188–90, 198–203. Brzezinski, Power and
Principle, pp. 83, 87,
100, 105, 110–11, 117, 237–38, 242,
254–71, 284 (“You are probably”).
Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a
President (New York:
Bantam, 1982), pp. 279, 293, 296-97,
496 (“The Camp David Accords”). Saadia
Touval, The
Peace Brokers: Mediators in the
Arab-Israeli Conflict,
1948–1979 (Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), pp.
291–314. Moshe Dayan, Breakthrough: A
Personal Account of the
Egypt-Israel Peace
Negotiations (New York:
Knopf, 1981), pp. 17, 89–99, 117, 126.
On Carter’s relationship with
evangelical Christians, see Donald
Wagner, “Evangelicals and Israel:
Theological Roots of a Political
Alliance,” Christian Century, Nov.
4, 1998, p. 1024 (“The time has
come”).
(21)
The lyrics for “Midnight
at the Oasis,” written by David
Nichtern, can be found at
http://www.webfitz.com/lyrics/Lyrics/1974/131974.html.
Said, Orientalism, pp. 27,
204, 59-60, 316, 319, 322. Edward W.
Said, “Islam through Western Eyes,”
Nation, March 26, 1980. Meir Litvak
and Joshua Teitelbaum, “Students,
Teachers and Edward Said: Taking Stock
of Orientalism,” Middle East Review of
International Affairs
10, no. 1 (March 2006): 3 (“to
discover”). Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong: The
Clash between Islam and Modernity
in the Middle East (New
York: Perennial, 2003), pp. 151
(“Compared with its millennial”),
152-53. “Orientalism: An Exchange,”
New York
Review of Books, Aug.
12, 1982, pp. 44 (“willful political
assertions”), 46 (“beneath the
umbrella”), 48 (“a genuine
problem”).
(22)
Mark Bowden, Guests of the
Ayatollah: The First Battle in
America’s War with Militant
Islam (New York:
Atlantic Monthly, 2006) pp. 33, 38, 69
(“undermined the political”), 115
(“island of stability”), 125 (“The
people of the United States”), 211,
218, 287, 313 (“Death to the Three”),
360, 479, 563, 564. Kenneth M.
Pollack, The
Persian Puzzle; The Conflict
between Iran and America
(New York: Random House, 2004), pp.
153–80. Brown, Faces of Power, pp. 515
(“Our relations with”), 524, 560 (“An
attempt by”). Carter, Keeping
Faith, pp. 458 (“It’s
almost impossible”), 466-67,
569.
الفصل الثامن والعشرون: حرب الثلاثين عامًا
(1)
Ronald Reagan, Reagan, in His Own
Hand, ed. Kiron K.
Skinne; Annelise Anderson, and Martin
Anderson (New York: Simon &
Schuster, 2001), p. 213. Ronald
Reagan, An
American Life (New York:
Simon & Schuster, 1990), p. 518
(“He’s not only a barbarian”).
Alexander M. Haig Jr., Caveat: Realism,
Reagan and Foreign
Policy (New York:
Macmillan, 1984), pp. 182–84. “Israeli
Jews Destroy Iraqi Atomic Reactor;
Attack Condemned by U.S. and Arab
Nations,” New
York Times, June 9,
1981, p. 1.
(2)
Reagan, American
Life, pp. 442, 423
(“We’re walking a tightrope”), 424
(“No matter how villainous”), 425–28,
430. Haig, Caveat, pp. 180-81,
186. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 251,
252, 253–59. Spiegel, Other Arab-Israeli
Conflict, pp. 416–26.
Fred Lawson, “The Reagan
Administration in the Middle East,”
MERIP
Reports, no. 128 (Nov.
1984): 32. On the Arafat evacuation,
see Barry Rubin and Judith CoIp Rubin,
Yasir
Arafat: A Political
Biography (Oxford:
Oxford Univ., 2003), pp. 77, 86–89. On
the role of the USS New Jersey, visit
the battleship’s website at
http://www.battleshipnewjersey.org/history.html.
(3)
Reagan, American
Life, pp. 496 (“Once
again”), 497–507, 518 (“Any nation
victimized”). Terry A. Anderson,
Den of
Lions: Memoirs of Seven
Years (New York: Crown,
1993). Numerous websites document the
terrorist attacks against the United
States in the 1980s; see, e.g.,
“Target America,”
http://www.pbs.org/wgbhl/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/cron.html,
and “Lebanon: The Hostage Crisis,”
http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8105.html.
(4)
Lawrence E. Walsh,
Iran-Contra: The Final
Report (New York: Times
Books, 1994), pp. 1–3, 10–24. Reagan,
American
Life, pp. 505-6 (“We
wouldn’t be shipping”), 516 (“I did
not think”). Douglas A. Bore; “Inverse
Engagement: Lessons from U.S-Iraq
Relations, 1982–1990,” Parameters
33, no. 2 (2003): 52 (“No one had any
doubts”), 53–56. Dana Priest, “Trip
Followed Criticism of Chemical Arms’
Use,” Washington Post, Dec. 19, 2003,
p. 42. Steve Coil, Ghost Wars: The
Secret History of the CIA,
Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from
the Soviet Invasion to September
10, 2001 (New York:
Penguin, 2005), p. 229 (“nation of
beasts”). Numerous documents on
American support for Saddam have been
posted on the Web; see, e.g.,
“Saddam’s Iron Grip: Intelligence
Reports on Saddam Hussein’s Reign,”
http://www.gwu.edu/nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBBI67/.
(5)
Kathleen Christison, “The
Arab-Israeli Policy of George Shultz,”
Journal of
Palestine Studies 18,
no. 2 (1989): 29–47. Quandt, Peace
Process, pp. 367–80.
David Ignatius, “The Secret History of
the U.S.-PLO Terror Talks,” Washington
Post, Dec. 4,
1988.
(6)
On Bush’s comparisons of
Saddam to Hitler and the protests they
provoked from Jewish groups, see
Allison Kaplan, “U.S Apologizes for
Hitler Remark,” Jerusalem Post, Nov.
7, 1991. Michael Kelly, Martyrs’ Day:
Chronicle of a Small War
(New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 120-21
(“I’ve been in the army”). H. Norman
Schwarzkopf, with Peter Petre,
It Doesn’t
Take a Hero: The
Autobiography (New York:
Bantam, 1992), p. 319 (“Saddam was
what”). Cohn Powell, with Joseph F.
Persaco, My
American Journey (New
York: Random House, 1995), pp. 461–71,
511–13. James Mann, The Rise of the
Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War
Cabinet (New York:
Penguin, 2004), pp. 185–91, 193 (“Our
practical intention”). Coll, Ghost
Wars, p. 229 (“It is not the world”).
James A. Baker III and Thomas M.
Defrank, The
Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution,
War and Peace, 1989–1992
(New York: Putnam, 1995), pp. 262-63,
272-73, 277 (“What the President
did”). “The Religion of George H. W.
Bush,”
http://www.adherents.com/people/pb/George_HW_Bush.html
(“Americans are the most
religious”). Bush’s “New World Order”
speech is available online at “Bab—An
Open Door to the Arab World,”
http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/pal/pa110.htm.
(7)
Dennis Ross, The Missing Peace:
The Inside Story of the Fight for
Middle East Peace (New
York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,
2004), pp. 68, 71–81. Baker and
Defrank, Politics of Diplomacy,
pp. 488 (“a rich tale”), 512 (“Like
the walls”). David Horovitz, “Blunt
Baker Urges Israel to Talk Peace,”
Jerusalem
Post, June 14,
1990.
(8)
Aladdin lyrics,
original and altered, appeared on
http://www.angelfire.com/movies/disneybroadway/aladdin.html.
Martin Kramer, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure
of Middle Eastern Studies in
America (Washington,
D.C.: Washington Institute of Near
East Policy, 2001), pp. 1,5. Samuel P.
Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the
Remarking of World Order
(New York: Simon & Schuster,
1996), pp. 217-18 (“The underlying
problem”).
(9)
CoIl, Ghost
Wars, pp. 249–56. “Text of
Clinton Statement on Iraq, Feb. 17,
1998,”
http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/02/17/transcripts/clinton.iraq/
(“unholy axis”). Bill Clinton, My
Life; The Presidential Years
(Westminster, Md.: Knopf, 2005), p. 40
(“I was pleased”). Laurie Mylroie,
“U.S. Policy toward Iraq,” Middle East
Intelligence Bulletin 3,
no. 1 (Jan.
2001).
(10)
Clinton, My Life: The
Presidential Years, pp.
78-79, 100-1 (“Now the horns”), 102-3,
104 (“Shalom, salaam, peace”), 244-45,
281 (“We had become friends”). Bill
Clinton, My
Life: The Early Years
(Westminster, Md.: Knopf, 2005), p.
466 (“God will never”). David
Horovitz, ed., Yitzhak Rabin: Solider of
Peace (London: Peter
Halban, 1996), pp. 115–22. Shimon
Peres, Battling for Peace: Memoirs,
ed. David Landau
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
1995), pp. 335–37, 343-44. Dennis
Ross, Missing
Peace, pp. 101–21.
Quandt, Peace
Process, pp. 327–31.
Connie Bruck, “The Wounds of Peace,”
New
Yorker, Oct. 14, 1996.
(11)
Clinton, My Life: The
Presidential Years, pp.
448-49 (“fanatics and killers”),
634-35 (“I am not a great man”),
642–46. Madeleine Albright, with Bill
Wood-ward, Madam Secretary (New
York: Miramax, 2003), pp. 289, 291,
294-95, 317, 490-91, 497. Douglas
WaIler, “A Frantic Hunt for Peace,”
http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/time/2000/10/16/peace.html
(“Close the gate!”). See also Robert
Malley and Hussein Agha, “Camp David:
The Tragedy of Errors,” New York
Review of Books, Aug. 9, 2001. Coll,
Ghost Wars, pp. 329, 376-77, 379, 380
(“Every Muslim”), 395-96, 405–15, 436
(“We are at
war”).
(12)
Richard Bernstein et al.,
Out of the
Blue: The Story of September 11,
2001, from Jihad to Ground
Zero (New York: Times
Books, 2002), pp. 7, 25-26, 120-21,
131–39, 184 (“Please have fun”). CNN
Breaking News, Sept. 11,2001,
Transcript 091174CN, p. 4 (“these are
Islamic
terrorists”).
(13)
Bob Woodward, Plan of
Attack (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2004), pp. 26, 89,
112, 132, 154, 293, 317. Michael R.
Cordon and Bernard E. Trainor,
Cobra II:
The Inside Story of the Invasion
and Occupation of Iraq
(New York: Pantheon, 2006), pp. 14–19,
36–40, 50–53, 93-94, 104, 108, 160–65.
“Bush Delivers Graduation Speech at
West Point,”
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/06/20020601-3.html.
Bush’s statement on the Senate and
House vote authorizing the war in Iraq
can be found on the White House
website,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021016-11.html.
Powell’s Feb. 5 testimony to the
Security Council appears on the U.S.
State Department website,
http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2003/17300.htm.
(14)
Gordon and Trainor,
Cobra
II, pp. 436-37. John
Keegan, Iraq
War: The Military Offensive, from
Victory in 21 Days to the Insurgent
Aftermath (Westminster,
Md.: Knopf, 2005), pp. 204–10, 428,
448–50, 457–61, 475, 484-85, 493. L.
Paul Bremer III, My Year in Iraq: The
Struggle to Build a Future of
Hope (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2006), pp. 14,
39–42, 57. “President Outlines Steps
to Help Iraq Achieve Democracy and
Freedom,”
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040524-10.html.
“Iraqi Smart Culture Card,”
http://cryptome.orgliraq-culture.htm.
A Short
Guide to Iraq
(Washington, D.C.: War and Navy
Departments, 1943), p. 5. Brian
Turner, “What Every Soldier Should
Know,” Here, Bullet (Farmingron, Me.:
Alice James Books, 2005), reprinted
with the permission of Alice James
Books. Fouad Ajami, “Heart of
Darkness,” Wall Street Journal,
Sept. 28, 2005. Francis Fukuyama,
America at
the Crossroads: Democracy, Power
and the Neoconservative
Legacy (New Haven: Yale
Univ. Press, 2006), p. 181 (“a
self-fulfilling prophecy”).
Christopher Hitchens, “The Perils of
Withdrawal,” Slate, Nov. 29, 2005.
Thomas L. Friedman, “Budgets of Mass
Destruction,” New York Times, Feb. 1,
2004.
